FRIENDS programmes

1. Introduction

Version followed: FRIENDS for Life (ages about 8–11) as the core protocol: 10 weekly group sessions, 2 boosters and 2 parent information sessions. The FFL session-by-session sequence below draws on the session table of the Barrett-manual edition used in the Amsterdam trial (Kösters et al. 2012), and delivery formats on the PACES trial (Stallard et al. 2014), the Kent trial registration (2014 editions, Barrett, Cooper & Guajardo), the NHS Scotland Early Intervention Framework, the ACER Wellbeing Guide and the developer's site. The acronym wording differs by edition and is given per edition in section 2. Age-graded siblings are given where they differ: Fun FRIENDS (4–7), My FRIENDS Youth (developer site: 10–15; manual-era 12–15) and Adult Resilience for Life (16+, LIFE acronym). The group leaders' manuals themselves (Barrett 2005, 2012, 2013/2014 editions) are not drawn on: session topics are sourced, but the step-by-step activity wording in section 4 remains my reconstruction [synthesis] and is marked [uncertain] where no source describes the activity.

FRIENDS is a family of manualised, group-based cognitive-behavioural resilience programmes developed by Paula Barrett in Australia, originally for preventing and treating childhood anxiety and later broadened to depression prevention and social-emotional learning. It is a programme rather than a single therapy: it is delivered mostly as a universal class programme by teachers or health staff, but also to selected small groups and in clinics [source: FRIENDS Resilience site; Wikipedia; NREPP profile]. Its theory of change: stressful situations produce anxiety; if children learn to recognise feelings and body signals, calm their bodies, swap unhelpful for helpful self-talk, and approach problems in small planned steps with support and self-reward, coping improves in the short term and the risk of later anxiety disorders falls [source: Foundations Guidebook FRIENDS for Life and Fun FRIENDS sheets]. The work targets three linked systems: physiological (body clues, relaxation), cognitive (self-talk, thought change, self-reward) and learning/behavioural (coping step plans, problem solving, role models, support networks), with attachment, peer learning, mindfulness, positive psychology and (in later editions) ACT ideas added [source: Woodrow 2014; NREPP; Wikipedia].

2. Framework

The mnemonic is the structure. Each letter names a skill taught in sequence (one letter per session or across two sessions). The wording has changed across editions; use the wording printed in the edition you are licensed for [source: Kösters et al. 2012; ISRCTN13721202; Wikipedia; FRIENDS Resilience; ACER Wellbeing Guide; NHS Scotland EIF]:

FRIENDS for Life, pre-2014 manual edition (as tabled in Kösters et al. 2012; edition year not stated there): F – Feelings; R – Remember to relax, have quiet time; I – I can do it! I can try my best!; E – Explore solutions and Coping Step Plans; N – Now reward yourself! You've done your best!; D – Don't forget to practise; S – Smile! Stay calm for life!
FRIENDS for Life, 2014 editions (Barrett, Cooper & Guajardo 2014, as listed in ISRCTN13721202): Feelings; Remember to relax; Inner helpful thoughts; Explore solutions and coping plans; Now reward yourself; Do it every day; Stay strong inside. Wikipedia gives a hybrid of the two, with S as "Smile! Stay calm, and talk to support teams".
FRIENDS for Life, current developer and ACER wording: Feelings; Relax; I can try my best; Explore step plans; Now rewards; Do it daily; Support networks (seek help from trusted people) [source: ACER Wellbeing Guide].
My FRIENDS Youth (developer site): Feelings (own emotions, empathy); Relax (quiet time, present focus); Inner thoughts (unhelpful to helpful thinking); Explore solutions (and their consequences); Now rewards (effort, satisfaction with trying); Do it every day; Stay strong (share skills with family and community).
Fun FRIENDS: older wording (developer blog; NHS Scotland EIF): Feelings; Relax / Remember to relax; I can try (my best); Encourage (step-by-step plans); Nurture (quality time, role models, support); Don't forget – be brave; Stay happy (Foundations sheet: "Stay smiling"). Current ACER wording: Feelings; Relax; I Can Try; Explore; Nice Work; Don't Forget; Stay Brave.

FRIENDS for Life session sequence (pre-2014 edition, verified) [Kösters et al. 2012, BMC Public Health 12:86, Table 1]. Topic labels are paraphrased; the 2014 editions keep the letters but move some content (e.g. physiological symptoms in session 2, emotional self-management in session 4, peer relationships in session 8 [source: ISRCTN13721202]), so the exact 2014 mapping remains [uncertain]:

Rapport building and introductions; group guidelines; normalising anxiety and individual differences in how people react.
Psychoeducation: identifying different emotions; introducing the link between thoughts and feelings.
F: body signs of anxiety. R: relaxation activities, quiet time, and choosing pleasant or distracting activities for when worried or sad.
I: identifying self-talk; helpful green thoughts and unhelpful red thoughts.
Attention training (looking for positive aspects of difficult situations); challenging red thoughts. E: coping step plans (graded exposure up a fear hierarchy, goal setting, breaking problems into small steps).
The 6-stage problem-solving plan; coping role models; social support plans.
N: self-reward for doing your best.
D: practising the FRIENDS skills. S: reflecting on ways to cope in difficult situations.
Generalising the skills to a range of difficult situations; teaching others the FRIENDS skills.
Maintenance of the strategies; preparing for minor setbacks.

Boosters: 2 sessions reviewing the strategies and preparing for future challenges [source: Kösters et al. 2012], about 1 and 3 months after session 10 [source: NREPP; ISRCTN13721202]. Other protocols time them 1 and 2 months after (Kösters et al. 2012, where only the first was run) or a month apart [source: ACER].
Parents: 2 information sessions of about 90–120 minutes (two 2-hour evenings in schools, covering psychoeducation and behaviour management), held before and during the child programme so parents can reinforce the skills at home [source: Wikipedia; NREPP; NHS Scotland EIF; ISRCTN13721202; ACER]. In health settings the developer recommends 10–15 minutes of family involvement at the end of each group session, and in the individual format family members join the last 30 minutes of each session [source: NHS Scotland EIF]. Variants: the Amsterdam indicated-group trial ran one parent session after session 3 or 4, followed by an individual parent evaluation meeting [source: Kösters et al. 2012]; some trials offered 4 evenings [source: NREPP]. Parents are encouraged to complete Adult Resilience themselves [source: NHS Scotland EIF].

Phases (my grouping of the sequence for planning) [synthesis]:

Set-up (before session 1): facilitator training, licence and materials, school agreement, parent information session 1, consent where required (selected/indicated groups need parental consent and participation [source: HCN Baltimore adaptation]).
Foundation (sessions 1–3): group safety, normalising anxiety, emotional vocabulary, the thoughts–feelings link, body clues, a calming skill. Goal: every child can name a feeling, point to where it shows in the body and do one calming skill.
Cognitive (sessions 4–5): catch self-talk, attention training, challenge red thoughts. Goal: child can produce a green alternative to a red thought for a personal example.
Approach and problem solving (sessions 5–6): coping step plans, 6-stage problem solving, role models, support plans. Goal: each child has a written step plan for one real challenge and has tried the first step.
Consolidation and relapse prevention (sessions 7–10 plus boosters): self-reward, practice, generalising, teaching others, maintenance and setback planning.

(Session numbers follow the verified pre-2014 table; the grouping itself is mine [synthesis].)

Format and dose. Standard: 10 weekly sessions of 60–75 minutes (or two 30–35 minute periods), plus 2 boosters, whole class or small group [source: Wikipedia; ISRCTN13721202; NHS Scotland EIF gives 1–1.5 h]. The developer recommends two facilitators per group, a primary facilitator and a co-therapist; in health settings, small groups of 8–10, with an individual format for children with clinical anxiety [source: NHS Scotland EIF]. Trial variants: PACES (England) ran nine 60-minute weekly whole-class sessions, led either by two trained health facilitators working alongside the class teacher or by a trained teacher [source: Stallard et al. 2014 PACES follow-up protocol]; the Amsterdam indicated programme ran groups of about ten 10–12-year-olds led by two prevention workers [source: Kösters et al. 2012]. The developer allows other schedules if sequence, structure and the private participant book are kept: 1.5 h weekly over one term; 45 min weekly over two terms; 30–60 min twice weekly; 15 min daily repeating one activity for several weeks with new examples; holiday programme of 2–2.5 h on 5 days; weekend intensive of 2–3 full days [source: FRIENDS Resilience; NHS Scotland EIF]. Selected-group adaptation (Baltimore, urban violence exposure): 13 one-hour small-group sessions with homework packets and role play [source: HCN].

Age versions [source: Wikipedia; NREPP; Foundations Fun FRIENDS sheet; ERIC/Kairaranga NZ evaluation; FRIENDS Resilience Adult Resilience page]:

Fun FRIENDS (4–7): play-based (puppets, storybooks, colouring, games, videos). Typically 9–10 weekly 1 h sessions or 5 sessions of 2–2.5 h [source: Foundations sheet; developer blog]; ACER now lists 12 sessions of about 1 h, often delivered by trained classroom teachers after self-paced online training [source: ACER]. Topic order (Foundations sheet): Identity (group cohesion, acceptance); Feelings (emotions, helpful vs unhelpful coping behaviours); Remember to relax (the developer blog names "bubble" breathing and quiet time); I can try my best (self-talk); Encourage (break tasks into steps, try new things); Nurture (role models, support teams, quality time together); Don't forget to be brave (support teams again, plans for hard situations, practising every day with family and friends); Stay smiling / Stay happy (dress as a favourite brave person, celebration). The developer blog also lists brave-voice, eye-contact and friend-making skills. Parent information sessions before and during the programme [source: ACER].
My FRIENDS Youth (12–15; developer site now says 10–15): discussion, role play, written tasks. 10 sessions; Barrett 2012 allows 1–2 sessions a week of 30 or 60 minutes [source: ERIC NZ]; the developer site lists the same flexible formats as FFL and no formal parent sessions (the private book is used at home) [source: FRIENDS Resilience My FRIENDS Youth page]. Sequence as reported by the NZ evaluation: 1 introductions, rationale, personal goals, tolerance of difference; 2 Feelings, body signals, verbal and non-verbal communication, empathy; 3 confidence and friendship; 4 relaxation and mindfulness; 5 attention training, self-talk, the "CBT Skateboard" model; 6 reframing distressing situations; 7 realistic goals, breaking problems into steps; 8 coping step plans for problem solving, support teams; 9 staying calm to solve problems, peace-making and conflict communication, self-reward; 10 daily practice, sharing skills, helping others builds self-worth. Site topics also include integrity and staying positive under peer pressure.
Adult Resilience for Life (16+): LIFE acronym: Learning to be mindful; Inner helpful thoughts; Feeling like a resilient person; Enjoying a healthy lifestyle. Same delivery formats as FFL; aimed especially at parents and young adults in transition. A 2-day adult and older-adult variant, Strong Not Tough (2012), grew from it. Detailed adult session plan not found [uncertain].

Moving between phases. The programme is sequence-driven, not criterion-driven: sessions follow the manual order regardless of individual mastery; individual differences are absorbed by home practice, review at the start of each session and the boosters [source: FRIENDS Resilience delivery requirements; NHS Scotland EIF]. In practice [synthesis]: do not start thought-change (session 4) until most children can link a feeling to a body clue; do not start coping step plans (session 5) until each child can name a calming skill and a green thought to carry into the steps; with slow groups, repeat an activity rather than skip a letter (the LD adaptation repeated and slowed activities and did not finish the programme [source: Woodrow 2014]).

Training and quality assurance. Facilitators must be trained before delivering, and may deliver only the programmes they are trained in; the organisation must first hold a licence (valid 3 years, covering all four programmes) [source: NHS Scotland EIF; FRIENDS Resilience]. Current model: Adult Resilience training as a prerequisite, then compulsory self-paced online content training (stated as 4–8 hours) and a 2-hour interactive online process training; face-to-face training is also offered; certification lasts 3 years and is renewed with a 2-hour refresher; no formal supervision is required, though trainers offer implementation support [source: NHS Scotland EIF; ACER]. Older model: 1-day training covering two versions or 2-day covering all four, with content on anxiety and depression, risk and protective factors, the CBT and positive-psychology basis and implementation [source: NREPP]. UK trial delivery (PACES) used 2 days' training plus fortnightly supervision by accredited FRIENDS trainers for health facilitators [source: Stallard et al. 2014; Foundations FFL]. Fidelity tools: version-specific Intervention Integrity Checklists, a facilitator knowledge and self-efficacy scale, and social-validity measures [source: NREPP]; trials added facilitator session logs (adherence, responsiveness, attendance and homework completed) and observer checklists on at least two sessions per group [source: Kösters et al. 2012]. Each child must have their own activity book [source: FRIENDS Resilience; ACER].

3. Guiding principles

Resilience for everyone, not treatment of the sick — frame sessions as life skills; never single out anxious children in a universal class [source: FRIENDS Resilience; Wikipedia].
Keep sequence and structure — you may change the timetable, never the order or core content [source: FRIENDS Resilience].
Three systems together — every problem is worked through body, thoughts and actions; if a child is stuck in one, enter through another [source: Woodrow 2014; NREPP; ERIC NZ].
Face rather than avoid — the aim is to overcome problems in small steps rather than escape them; graded approach is built in through step plans [source: Woodrow 2014; Foundations Fun FRIENDS].
Developmentally matched methods — play, puppets and stories for under-8s; discussion, role play and writing for older groups [source: Wikipedia; NREPP].
Experiential and peer learning — children learn by doing, role-playing and hearing peers' examples; your job is to elicit, not lecture [source: Woodrow 2014].
Reward effort, not outcome; prefer interpersonal rewards — praise trying, and steer children toward rewards like time with a parent over things [source: Wikipedia].
Daily practice and generalisation — a skill used only in session is not learned; set home practice every session [source: FRIENDS Resilience; Foundations].
Family as co-therapists — parents learn the language and reinforce it; the private book travels home [source: FRIENDS Resilience; Wikipedia; NREPP].
Prosocial orientation — empathy, friendship, kindness and helping others are core content, not extras; helping others builds self-worth [source: ERIC NZ; FRIENDS Resilience blog].
Social support and help-seeking — every child leaves with a named support team [source: Foundations FFL].
Acceptance of difference — session 1 builds a group norm of accepting differences; protect it throughout [source: Foundations FFL; ERIC NZ].
Healthy lifestyle as resilience — sleep, food and activity are part of coping (explicit in Adult LIFE "E") [source: FRIENDS Resilience Adult page and blog].
Fidelity monitoring — use the integrity checklist each session and debrief with co-facilitators [source: NREPP; Woodrow 2014].

4. Intervention inventory

The programme's named components are listed in session order. Their names and purposes come from the sources cited. Step-by-step wording is my own reconstruction for a clinician who does not yet hold the manual, so steps are marked [synthesis] unless a source describes them. All example language is illustrative. Once you are trained, follow the licensed manual and activity book wherever they differ from this guide.

Standard session shell [source: Woodrow 2014 for warm-up, homework review, evaluation and debrief; the rest is synthesis]: (1) a warm-up game or sharing round; (2) review of the previous letter and home practice, with praise for any attempt; (3) the new skill, introduced through a story, character or discussion; (4) practice through a game, role play or activity-book page, using children's own examples; (5) setting home practice in the book; (6) a quick child evaluation such as thumbs up or down; (7) a facilitator debrief and the integrity checklist.

4.1 Parent information sessions

Purpose: teach parents the FRIENDS language and skills, how to reinforce them at home, and behaviour management. Two sessions are held, at the start and midway [source: Wikipedia; NREPP]. The parent presentations and notes are free but required by the developer [source: NREPP].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Explain the programme as resilience-building for all children. (2) Walk through the acronym, with one home example per letter. (3) Show the activity book and agree that it stays private to the child but can be shared at home if the child chooses. (4) Teach parents to notice and praise effort, to prompt the skill rather than rescue the child, and to model their own green thoughts and calming. (5) At the midway session, coach parents on supporting a step plan at home and on not accommodating avoidance.
Example language (illustrative): "When your child says 'I can't', try asking 'What would a green thought be?' before you step in."
Watch for: low turnout (offer evenings, video, or a take-home sheet); parents who expect the programme to fix a clinical disorder (screen them and refer on); parental anxiety that models avoidance.

4.2 Group launch: introductions, group agreement, goals, accepting difference (session 1; Fun FRIENDS "Identity")

Purpose: build cohesion, explain the rationale, set personal goals, agree group guidelines, normalise anxiety and individual differences in anxiety reactions, and establish tolerance and empathy for differences [source: Kösters et al. 2012, BMC Public Health 12:86, Table 1; Foundations FFL and Fun FRIENDS sheets; ERIC NZ].
Steps: (1) Run a name game, then each child shares something about themselves [synthesis]. (2) Co-write group rules: listen, take turns, keep others' stories private, and there are no silly feelings [synthesis]. (3) Introduce the acronym and the activity book [source: FRIENDS Resilience]. (4) Hold an "alike and different" activity, such as finding things you share with a partner and one way you differ, then discuss why differences are fine [synthesis; topic sourced]. (5) Each child writes or draws one goal for the programme [source: ERIC NZ for goal setting].
Example language (illustrative): "Everyone in this room is different, and every one of you can learn to be brave in your own way."
Watch for: children who opt out of sharing (let them pass); early peer conflict, which was reported in the NZ youth group and settled by session 3 [source: Kairaranga/ERIC NZ].

4.3 Feelings: recognising feelings in self and others; empathy (F)

Purpose: build emotional vocabulary, recognise feelings in self and others including through verbal and non-verbal cues, introduce the link between thoughts and feelings (FFL session 2), and build empathy and helping. Fun FRIENDS adds helpful versus unhelpful coping behaviours [source: Kösters et al. 2012, BMC Public Health 12:86, Table 1; Foundations; ERIC NZ; FRIENDS Resilience].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Brainstorm feeling words and sort them into comfortable and uncomfortable. (2) Play a feelings-faces game: act out a feeling with the face and body only while the group guesses. (3) For each feeling, ask what situation brought it on and what you can see on the person. (4) Practise empathy: given a picture or story of a worried child, what might they feel, and what could we do to help? (5) For young children, sort pictured responses into thumbs-up choices (helpful coping) and thumbs-down choices [thumbs-up language: FRIENDS Resilience blog]. (6) Home practice: notice one feeling in yourself and one in someone else each day.
Example language (illustrative): "How can you tell from his face and his body that Sam is worried? What could a good friend do?"
Watch for: children who name only "good" or "bad" (build their vocabulary); disclosures prompted by "when did you feel scared" (see 5.4); success shows as children spontaneously labelling feelings in class.

4.4 Body clues (R)

Purpose: recognise the body's early warning signs of worry and other feelings, as the cue to use a calming skill (FFL session 3, under F) [source: Kösters et al. 2012, BMC Public Health 12:86, Table 1; Foundations FFL; Wikipedia; ERIC NZ; developer blog names tension and "flutters" as clues].
Steps: (1) Draw or trace a body outline, the "body map" [source: Woodrow 2014]. (2) Children mark where they feel worry, for example a racing heart, butterflies, sweaty hands, a hot face or tight muscles [synthesis]. (3) Compare body clues for worry, anger and excitement, and note that some overlap [synthesis]. (4) Link each clue to a cue: "when I notice this, I use my relaxation" [synthesis]. (5) Home practice: notice and record body clues [source: Woodrow 2014 for body-map homework].
Example language (illustrative): "Your body is clever. It sends you clues before the worry gets big. Where does your body tell you first?"
Watch for: children who catastrophise body clues as illness (normalise them as the body's alarm); it is working when a child can name their own first clue.

4.5 Relaxation and quiet time (R)

Purpose: give children a physiological calming skill to use when body clues appear, build a habit of daily quiet time, and choose pleasant or distracting activities for when worried or sad (FFL session 3) [source: Kösters et al. 2012; Wikipedia; FRIENDS Resilience; Foundations]. The named relaxation methods are diaphragmatic breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, massage and relaxation imagery, with mindfulness added in the youth and adult programmes [source: Wikipedia]; Fun FRIENDS uses "bubble" breathing [source: developer blog]. The adult and youth materials refer to relaxation techniques of the kind athletes use [source: FRIENDS Resilience Adult page]. Partner "pizza massage" is reported in a UK special-school delivery [source: Woodrow 2014].
Steps: [synthesis; technique types sourced, the manual scripts were not seen] (1) Slow diaphragmatic breathing: breathe in gently through the nose into the tummy, breathe out more slowly than you breathed in, and repeat several times; younger children can blow imaginary bubbles or smell a flower. (2) Progressive muscle relaxation: tense and release hands, shoulders, face and legs in turn, noticing the difference. (3) Imagery or quiet time: a short guided calm-place image or sitting quietly. (4) Build each child's list of pleasant or distracting activities for worried or sad times. (5) Practise briefly, so the skill can be used in a classroom without anyone noticing. (6) Home practice: practise daily when already calm, so the skill is available when stressed.
Example language (illustrative): "Let's breathe out slower than we breathe in, like we're cooling hot soup."
Watch for: dizziness from over-breathing (slow the pace down); children for whom eyes-closed or body-focused exercises feel unsafe, such as trauma-exposed children (let them keep their eyes open and offer an external focus); touch-based exercises need consent and school policy approval. It is working when children report feeling calmer and use the skill unprompted.

4.6 Mindfulness and present-moment awareness (R in youth and adult versions; L in LIFE)

Purpose: attend to the present, increase awareness of self and others, and get through distressing emotions without being swept along by them [source: ERIC NZ; Wikipedia; FRIENDS Resilience Adult page].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) A short anchor practice: notice the breath, sounds or the feet on the floor for one to three minutes. (2) Notice thoughts and feelings, name them and return to the anchor. (3) Mindful everyday activity: eat, walk or listen with full attention. (4) Debrief: what did you notice, and how is this different from fighting a feeling? (5) Daily practice.
Example language (illustrative): "Notice the worry, give it a name, 'there's worry', and bring your attention back to your feet."
Watch for: adolescents who find it awkward (keep it short and relate it to sport and music performance); distress that rises with inward focus (switch to an external anchor).

4.7 Attention training and positive attention (FFL session 5; youth session 5)

Purpose: shift attention away from threat or the negative toward helpful and positive aspects of a difficult situation; taught in FFL session 5 just before challenging red thoughts [source: Kösters et al. 2012; ERIC NZ; Wikipedia]. The exact manual exercise was not found [uncertain].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Show an ambiguous picture or scenario and list everything noticed. (2) Point out how attention went to the negative. (3) Practise deliberately finding helpful or positive details, and notice the effect on feelings. (4) Daily task: note three good things or helpful details each day.
Example language (illustrative): "Our attention is like a torch. Where are you shining it, and what else is in the room?"
Watch for: this tipping into forced positivity or invalidation; acknowledge real problems first.

4.8 Green and red thoughts: identifying self-talk (I)

Purpose: recognise that self-talk drives feelings and actions; label helpful self-talk as green and unhelpful as red [source: Foundations FFL; FRIENDS Resilience blog; Woodrow 2014]. Young children start with "I can try my best" [source: Foundations Fun FRIENDS].
Steps: (1) Introduce the idea that we all talk to ourselves inside our heads [synthesis]. (2) Present one situation with two characters, one thinking a red thought and one a green thought; ask how each feels and what each does [synthesis]. (3) Sort thought cards into red and green; in the LD delivery, children wore red and green hats to voice the thoughts [source: Woodrow 2014]. (4) Children generate their own red thoughts for a common situation, such as a test or a new school [synthesis]. (5) Home practice: catch one red thought a day [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Red thoughts make us feel worse and stop us trying. Green thoughts help us feel OK and have a go."
Watch for: children who think red thoughts are "bad" or forbidden (stress that everyone has them and the task is to notice them); it is working when children can label a thought on the spot.

4.9 Changing red thoughts into green thoughts (I)

Purpose: replace anxiety-increasing thoughts with helpful, realistic ones; evaluate yourself realistically [source: Foundations FFL; Woodrow 2014; EUSELF Fun FRIENDS]. Youth version: reframe distressing situations into more helpful, realistic views [source: ERIC NZ].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Take one red thought from the child's own life. (2) Ask questions such as: is it definitely true, what is the evidence, what would you tell a friend, what is most likely to happen, and if it did happen, how could you cope? (3) Write a green thought that is believable rather than falsely positive. (4) Rate how the feeling changes. (5) Role-play saying the green thought in the situation. (6) Home practice: turn one red thought green each day in the book.
Example language (illustrative): "If your best friend had this red thought, what would you say to help them? Can you say that to yourself?"
Watch for: green thoughts that are not believed (go smaller and more realistic); realistic threats such as bullying or violence, where the right answer is problem solving and adult help, not reframing [synthesis; see 5.9].

4.10 The "CBT Skateboard" model (youth version)

Purpose: show how feelings, thoughts, physical reactions and behaviours influence each other: each wheel is one system, and changing one moves the whole board [source: ERIC NZ citing Barrett 2012].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Draw a skateboard with four labelled wheels. (2) Map a recent stressful event onto each wheel. (3) Ask which wheel you could change first. (4) Use the model as the frame for later sessions.
Example language (illustrative): "If one wheel's stuck, the board won't roll. Which wheel can you get moving today?"
Watch for: it is working when young people use it spontaneously; NZ participants cited it as a calming tool [source: ERIC NZ].

4.11 Coping step plans: graded approach to a feared or hard goal (E; Fun FRIENDS "Encourage" and "Don't forget to be brave")

Purpose: break an overwhelming goal or a feared situation into small steps, rehearse each with calming and green thoughts, and reward each step. This is the programme's graded-exposure element: FFL session 5 introduces coping step plans as graded exposure up a fear hierarchy, goal setting and breaking problems into small steps, used to break the anxiety–avoidance cycle [source: Kösters et al. 2012; Wikipedia; Foundations Fun FRIENDS and FFL; FRIENDS Resilience blog; ERIC NZ].
Consent and safety first: [synthesis] (1) Every child picks their own goal, and nobody is pushed into a step. (2) In a universal class, keep goals to everyday challenges, such as asking a question in class, a sleepover, or trying a new club. Clinical-level fears, trauma reminders, and anything dangerous or unsafe go to individual clinical work. (3) Steps must be safe and must be approved by a parent where they happen at home. (4) Contraindications for exposure-type steps: current abuse or ongoing danger linked to the feared situation, acute suicidality, or a situation that is realistically unsafe. In those cases, problem-solve and involve adults instead.
Steps: [synthesis; the step-plan structure is sourced] (1) Choose a goal and write it at the top of a staircase or ladder drawing. (2) List smaller versions of it and rate each with a worry thermometer. (3) Order the steps from easiest to hardest, starting with one the child feels about 70% sure they can do. (4) For each step, plan which calming skill, which green thought and which support person to use, and what reward follows. (5) Try the first step that week and report back. Move up only when the current step feels manageable. (6) If a step is too hard, split it, rather than abandon the plan.
Example language (illustrative): "We don't jump to the top of the stairs. Which step is just a little bit scary, but you think you could do it this week?"
Watch for: steps that are too big; parents pushing the child or rescuing them; avoidance dressed up as "I forgot". It is working when the worry ratings on repeated steps fall and the child moves up the plan. Young children may find the plan conceptually hard, so use concrete pictures and adult scaffolding [source: Woodrow 2014].

4.12 Six-step problem-solving plan (E)

Purpose: solve everyday problems by generating and evaluating solutions and their consequences, instead of avoiding them. FFL names it the "6-Stage Problem-Solving Plan" (session 6) [source: Kösters et al. 2012]; its elements are brainstorming solutions, weighing likely consequences and reviewing outcomes [source: Wikipedia; Foundations FFL; EUSELF Fun FRIENDS]. The exact wording of the six stages was not seen [uncertain]; the steps below follow the standard CBT sequence implied by the sources.
Steps: [synthesis] (1) What is the problem? (2) Brainstorm all possible solutions without judging them. (3) For each, ask what might happen and whether it is a thumbs-up or thumbs-down choice. (4) Choose the best one. (5) Plan it and do it, getting help from your support team if needed. (6) Review: did it work, and what would you try next? Reward the effort. Practise first on a story character's problem, then on the child's own problem, using role play [source for role-play reinforcement: HCN].
Example language (illustrative): "Let's get every idea out first, even silly ones, and then see where each one would lead."
Watch for: children who jump to the first idea, so insist on at least three ideas; problems that belong to adults, such as violence at home (see 5.4).

4.13 Role models (E; Fun FRIENDS "Nurture")

Purpose: learn coping from people who handle difficulty well ("coping role models", FFL session 6), and choose role models for their values rather than their fame [source: Kösters et al. 2012; Foundations FFL and Fun FRIENDS; FRIENDS Resilience blog; Adult page].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Each child names someone they admire. (2) Discuss what that person does when things are hard, and what they might say to themselves. (3) Separate the person's qualities, such as kindness, persistence and courage, from status. (4) Ask what your role model would do in your step-plan situation. (5) Older groups also discuss choosing appropriate role models in the face of peer and media pressure.
Example language (illustrative): "When things go wrong for your role model, what do they do? Which part of that could you borrow?"
Watch for: role models who are unhelpful (ask about their coping, not their status).

4.14 Support teams and networks (E, S)

Purpose: identify the people a child can go to for help and build help-seeking; FFL session 6 builds "social support plans", and the current acronym's S is "Support networks" [source: Kösters et al. 2012; ACER; Foundations FFL; ERIC NZ; Wikipedia].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Draw circles or a team picture with family, school, friends and community. (2) For each person, write what kind of help they give: listening, fixing, fun or protection. (3) Make sure each child has at least one trusted adult at school and one at home. (4) Role-play asking for help. (5) Link the team into the step plan and the problem-solving plan.
Example language (illustrative): "Who's on your team? If you were stuck at school, who would you go to first?"
Watch for: a child who cannot name any adult. This is a welfare flag, so follow up privately and liaise with pastoral or safeguarding staff [synthesis].

4.15 Confidence and friendship skills (youth version, session 3; also Fun FRIENDS and FFL content)

Purpose: build confidence and the skills to make and keep friends; reflect on the qualities of good friendships; tell confidence apart from arrogance [source: ERIC NZ; Kairaranga; FRIENDS Resilience].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) List the qualities of a good friend. (2) Discuss confidence versus arrogance with examples. (3) Practise joining a group, giving a compliment and starting a conversation in role play. (4) Home task: one friendly act a day.
Example language (illustrative): "What's the difference between someone who's confident and someone who's showing off?"
Watch for: socially isolated or bullied members. Pair them thoughtfully, and watch for peers showing support; in the NZ group, one participant offered to back up a bullied peer [source: Kairaranga].

4.16 Staying calm to solve conflicts: peace-making (youth, session 9; adult content on bullying and peer pressure)

Purpose: stay calm enough to solve interpersonal problems, use communication for conflict resolution, compromise, resist peer pressure, and prevent bullying [source: ERIC NZ; FRIENDS Resilience Adult page].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Notice your anger body clues, then calm down. (2) Use a green thought, such as "we can sort this out". (3) Say what happened and how you feel, using an "I" statement. (4) Listen to the other side and repeat it back. (5) Look for a compromise using the problem-solving steps. (6) Role-play scenarios, including saying no to peer pressure.
Example language (illustrative): "First cool the body, then say how you feel, then listen. Then look for a deal you can both live with."
Watch for: role plays that re-enact real conflicts within the group (use fictional scenarios); bullying, which needs a school response, not just coping skills.

4.17 Now reward yourself (N)

Purpose: teach self-reward for effort and "doing your best", not for perfect outcomes (FFL session 7), with a preference for interpersonal rewards such as time with family or friends over gifts, food, electronics or money [source: Kösters et al. 2012; Wikipedia; Woodrow 2014; FRIENDS Resilience].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Brainstorm rewards and sort them into small, medium and big, and things versus time with people. (2) Practise self-praise statements. (3) Attach a reward to each step-plan step. (4) Ask parents to deliver rewards promptly and to praise effort.
Example language (illustrative): "You were nervous and you still tried. That deserves a reward. What will it be?"
Watch for: perfectionist children who discount any effort short of success (praise the trying explicitly). Facilitators in the NZ group used chocolate as rewards [source: ERIC NZ]. Prefer non-food, social rewards [synthesis].

4.18 Do it every day: home practice and the private activity book (D)

Purpose: generalise the skills through daily use in real situations (FFL session 8 "practising the FRIENDS skills"; session 9 generalising to a range of difficult situations); each child keeps a private book to review skills at home with family [source: Kösters et al. 2012; FRIENDS Resilience; Foundations FFL].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) End every session with one clear practice task in the book. (2) Start the next session by reviewing it, praising any attempt and problem-solving any barriers. (3) Daily-format delivery repeats the same activity over several weeks with new examples [source: FRIENDS Resilience]. (4) Teachers can prompt skills in everyday class moments, such as asking for a green thought before a test.
Example language (illustrative): "Skills are like muscles. Which one will you train every day this week?"
Watch for: books left at school, and homework that becomes a chore (keep it short and fun; see 5.5).

4.19 Stay strong / Smile, stay calm, talk to support teams: helping others and sharing skills (S)

Purpose: relapse prevention, reflecting on ways to cope in difficult situations (FFL session 8, S), teaching others the skills (session 9), sharing skills with family and community, and recognising that helping others builds self-worth; kindness and smiling as prosocial habits [source: Kösters et al. 2012; ERIC NZ; Wikipedia; FRIENDS Resilience site and blog].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Each child teaches one skill to a family member or younger child. (2) Plan one kind act. (3) Make a personal coping card that lists body clues, a calming skill, green thoughts, the support team and the step-plan method. (4) Anticipate future hard times, such as transitions and exams, and plan which skills to use.
Example language (illustrative): "Who could you teach your favourite FRIENDS skill to this week?"
Watch for: relapse planning that is too abstract (use the child's real upcoming events).

4.20 Maintenance, setback planning and celebration (session 10; Fun FRIENDS "Stay smiling")

Purpose: consolidate all the letters, plan how to maintain the strategies, and prepare for minor setbacks (FFL session 10) [source: Kösters et al. 2012], then celebrate. Fun FRIENDS children dress up as a favourite brave person; FFL ends with a review and a party [source: Foundations Fun FRIENDS and FFL; Woodrow 2014].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) An acronym quiz or game. (2) Each child shows their step-plan progress against their session 1 goal. (3) Make a future plan, using the coping card from 4.19. (4) Hold the celebration and hand out certificates. (5) Give the dates for the boosters.
Watch for: children with significant ongoing symptoms (screen and refer; see 5.3).

4.21 Booster sessions

Purpose: maintain gains and re-prompt skills about 1 and 3 months after the programme [source: NREPP].
Steps: [synthesis] (1) Review the acronym. (2) Each child reports when they used a skill. (3) Solve a current problem together as a group. (4) Set a new step plan.
Watch for: poor attendance at boosters. Book them at the outset.

4.22 Adult Resilience for Life: the LIFE components

Purpose: the adult and late-adolescent version covers Learning to be mindful (daily present-moment awareness); Inner helpful thoughts (supportive self-talk); Feeling like a resilient person (confidence to bounce back); and Enjoying a healthy lifestyle (balanced habits, sleep, food and activity). It also covers relaxation, goal setting, organisation, conflict, role models and offline relationships, and adds family and parenting resilience skills [source: FRIENDS Resilience Adult page and blog]. The Strong Not Tough variant covers mindfulness, limiting patterns, life transitions, conflict, turning solutions into plans, and celebrating successes [source: Strong Not Tough 2013 brochure].
Steps: [synthesis] Deliver as for 4.6, 4.9, 4.11 and 4.12 with adult examples. For the healthy-lifestyle component, have each participant review their sleep, eating and activity routines without setting numeric targets, and choose one small sustainable change as a step plan.
Example language (illustrative): "Which habit, if you looked after it, would make the biggest difference to how you cope this month?"
Watch for: adult session-by-session content was not found [uncertain]. Follow the licensed adult manual.

5. Handling problems

The sources give little explicit troubleshooting guidance. The few points that are sourced are tagged; everything else is my synthesis from standard group CBT and school-based practice.

5.1 Disengaged or stuck children

Sourced: slow the pace and repeat activities; use high-visual, low-verbal materials, props and puppets; use a symbolised timetable and a warm-up game each session; balance individual preferences within the group; bring in facilitators who know the children well [source: Woodrow 2014]. Individual check-ins help clarify how a young person is responding [source: ERIC NZ].
Synthesis: Switch entry systems: a child who cannot find thoughts may engage through body clues or action (step plans). Use the child's own interests for examples. Give a reluctant child a job, such as timekeeper or puppet holder. Never require a child to disclose.

5.2 Disruption, peer conflict and "resistance" in a class group

Sourced: early conflict and antagonism happened in the NZ youth group and settled by session 3; a co-facilitator chosen to fit the group, such as a male youth worker for a mostly male group, helped [source: Kairaranga/ERIC NZ]. In UK health-led delivery, the class teacher stays in the room [source: Foundations FFL].
Synthesis: Agree rules in session 1 and refer back to them. Seat children strategically and use the teacher for behaviour management, so the facilitator keeps teaching. Reframe teasing as a red-thought or peace-making teaching moment. Adolescents who find it "babyish": use the youth version, real-life scenarios, and choice about how they take part.

5.3 A child with clinical-level anxiety, depression or other disorder inside a universal group

Synthesis: Universal FRIENDS is not a substitute for assessment. Use the group as a screening opportunity, with parent and teacher concerns and validated anxiety or mood screeners administered per their licences. Refer for individual CBT or family-based treatment, and keep the child in the group if helpful. In clinic use, the developer frames FRIENDS as prevention, early intervention or treatment [source: Wikipedia]. For clinical cases, add individual step-plan exposure work and parent sessions [synthesis].

5.4 Overwhelm, disclosures and risk

Synthesis: Feelings and worry activities can surface abuse, domestic violence, bereavement or self-harm. Before the programme, agree the school's safeguarding route. In session, acknowledge briefly, avoid probing in front of peers, follow up privately the same day, and follow safeguarding procedures. If a child expresses suicidal thoughts or self-harm, carry out a same-day risk assessment using standard practice (ask directly, assess intent, plan and protective factors, involve carers unless that increases risk, and make a safety plan, including lethal-means counselling with parents about secure storage and removal) and refer to child mental health services. A child who becomes highly distressed in a relaxation or feelings exercise: stop, ground them with eyes open and an external focus, and offer a calm space with a known adult.

5.5 Non-adherence: home practice, books and parents

Synthesis: Make tasks very short, concrete and fun. Review them at the start of every session and praise any attempt. Problem-solve barriers with the child, using the six-step plan on "why the homework didn't happen". Send short parent notes in the programme language. For parents who do not attend: send recorded or written versions and phone the parents of children of concern. Parent missing data and attendance are a known weakness [source: NREPP].

5.6 Avoidance in step plans

Synthesis: Split steps until the first is doable; check for safety behaviours and parental accommodation; reward effort, not success. If a child repeatedly refuses, return to choice (a different goal) rather than pressure. Persistent avoidance of school or of separation: refer for individual treatment.

5.7 Rupture with the facilitator or group

Synthesis: Typical ruptures are a child feeling singled out, a peer laughing at a disclosure, or feedback that "this is pointless". Name it privately, apologise for your part, invite the child's view, and adapt (choice of task, a partner change). Repair any peer breach at group level by restating the norms without naming the child.

5.8 Fidelity drift and delivery problems

Sourced: facilitators must be trained, the sequence must be kept, and each child must have a private book [source: FRIENDS Resilience]. Use the integrity checklists [source: NREPP]. Training includes little supervised practice, and coaching is limited for facilitators without a CBT background [source: NREPP]. UK health-led delivery used fortnightly group supervision [source: Foundations FFL]. Planning and making resources take substantial time [source: Woodrow 2014].
Synthesis: Teachers or facilitators new to CBT should co-deliver with a clinician for the first cycle, rehearse role plays beforehand, and use a debrief after each session. When the timetable squeezes sessions, choose a flexible format such as the daily 15-minute or two-term 45-minute format rather than dropping letters. Whether teacher-led delivery is as effective as health-led delivery is debated in the literature; this was not reviewed here [uncertain].

5.9 Realistic threats: violence, bullying and adversity

Sourced: for children exposed to urban violence, an adaptation taught them to predict, avoid and process violent situations, with role play, homework packets and parental consent and participation required [source: HCN].
Synthesis: Do not "green-think" away real danger. Validate the threat, use problem solving and the support team to get adult action, and in a step plan, approach only safe situations. Bullying needs a whole-school response.

5.10 Learning disability and neurodiversity

Sourced: simplify materials and make them high-visual and low-verbal; use multimedia, puppets on sticks, red and green hats with thought cards, body maps and bookmarks; slow the pace; expect the mnemonic to mean little to some pupils; role plays and props help but can distract; consider links to communication passports [source: Woodrow 2014].
Synthesis: For autistic children, make abstract concepts concrete (thoughts as speech bubbles), give predictable routines, and offer sensory-friendly relaxation choices.

5.11 Cultural and language adaptation

Sourced: FRIENDS has been translated into many languages and delivered with culturally specific frames, such as the NZ Te Whare Tapa Wha model in the youth version [source: Wikipedia; NREPP; ERIC NZ]. Adaptation is allowed if sequence, structure and the book are kept [source: FRIENDS Resilience].
Synthesis: Use culturally familiar role models, stories and family structures, and check that "talk to your support team" fits the family's norms about seeking help.

5.12 Food rewards, body image and other sensitivities

Synthesis: Avoid food rewards; use praise, privileges and social rewards instead. In the healthy-lifestyle component, avoid numeric weight, calorie or exercise targets, and refer any signs of disordered eating. Touch-based relaxation (partner massage) needs consent and school policy approval.

Sources

Sources: