SNAP · Atlas

1. Introduction

Version followed: the current SNAP® Boys model as described from the Child Development Institute (CDI) 4th-edition manuals (CDI, 2022: SNAP Boys children's group manual and parent group manual), which set 13 weekly 90-minute concurrent groups [source: CEBC]. Where they differ, the guide also notes the older SNAP Under 12 Outreach Project (ORP) description used in the Pittsburgh RCT (Burke & Loeber, 2015) [source: Blueprints] and the Public Safety Canada description of SNAP Girls, SNAP for Schools and SNAP Youth Leadership (about 12 weeks and 18 hours of club time) [source: Public Safety Canada]. The manuals themselves are licensed and are not drawn on here. Session-level procedure is therefore reconstructed from published program profiles and developer papers, and is tagged [synthesis] or [uncertain] where it goes beyond them.

Licensing note. SNAP is a licensed, branded multi-component program, not a single therapy technique. An agency can deliver it as "SNAP" only as a CDI Licensed Affiliate. That requires readiness and feasibility assessment, 3 days of lead-staff training, 5–9 days of core staff training, annual Trainer/Consultant support and fidelity monitoring [source: CEBC; Public Safety Canada]. A clinician working alone can use this guide in two ways: to understand and prepare for affiliate delivery, or to borrow its publicly described cognitive-behavioural principles (stop, calm, plan) in ordinary practice without using the SNAP name or materials [synthesis].

What it is. SNAP (Stop Now And Plan) is a gender-specific, family-focused, multisystemic cognitive-behavioural model for children aged 6–11 with high levels of aggressive or antisocial behaviour, such as stealing, lying, aggression and bullying. Referrals come from police, schools, child welfare, the fire service and parents [source: Augimeri et al., 2012]. Leena Augimeri and colleagues developed it at Earlscourt Child and Family Centre (now CDI) in Toronto from the mid-1980s, starting as the Under 12 Outreach Project for children in police contact. The 1985 police-protocol origin date comes from the codebook and is [uncertain].

How change happens. Conduct problems are understood as failures of emotion regulation and self-control. Ages 6–11 are treated as a key window for learning these skills [source: Augimeri, 2017 slides]. The child learns one portable, rehearsed strategy for the moment of upset: notice the body's signals and stop, calm down, then make a plan that makes the problem "smaller not bigger" [source: Augimeri quoted in Lawrence]. Parents learn the same self-regulation themselves, plus effective child management, so they can model and reinforce the strategy. Supports around school and community keep the gains going. Practice, repetition and positive reinforcement are assumed to change behaviour and the brain's self-control systems [source: Lawrence; CEBC].

2. Framework

Phase 0: Referral, intake and risk/need assessment. Referral comes through a police-community protocol, school, child welfare or parent. Intake includes separate interviews with the child and with the parent or guardian [source: National Gang Center]. With consent, standardised behaviour ratings are collected from the parent and the teacher, including a Teacher Report Form sent to the school [source: CEBC]. A trained clinician completes the EARL-20B (boys) or EARL-21G (girls) as part of an eco-systemic review before treatment [source: Augimeri et al., 2012]. Admission criteria used in research were: age 6–11, plus either a clinical-range externalising/conduct score or police contact. Children with significant developmental delay were excluded [source: Augimeri et al., 2012]. Goal: establish eligibility, risk level and differential needs, and build an individual plan of core and supporting components [source: Public Safety Canada]. Move on when: the family has consented, the plan is set and a group slot in the right age band is available [synthesis].

Phase 1: Core Groups (13 weeks). Concurrent, structured cognitive-behavioural groups run for children and for parents/caregivers. Each runs 90 minutes, once a week [source: CEBC]. Children's groups have at most 7 children and are banded by developmental age: 6–7, 8–9 and 10–11. Two Child Workers lead each children's group, and one or two Family Workers lead the parent group, with a supervisor available. Siblings join a parallel activity group, so three group spaces are needed at once [source: CEBC; Blueprints]. Older descriptions give about 12 weeks and 18 hours of Children's Club [source: Public Safety Canada]. The 4th-edition figure of 13 × 90 minutes is followed here. CEBC records no homework for children. In-the-moment practice and parent reinforcement at home serve that role instead [source: CEBC]. Goal: the child acquires and generalises the SNAP strategy; the parent acquires SNAP parenting skills. Move on when: the core groups are completed. Group graduation marks the transition, followed by a reassessment of risk and need to set continued care [source: Augimeri et al., 2012 (EARL used for discharge planning); synthesis].

Phase 2: Supporting and continued-care components (concurrent with or after core groups). These are matched to risk and need and delivered at home, school, clinic or in the community, up to about 60 minutes per week each [source: CEBC]. Components named across sources:

individual befriending/mentoring for child and caregiver
individualised family counselling (SNAP Parenting, SNAPP)
school advocacy and teacher consultation
academic support (tutoring or homework club)
victim restitution
crisis intervention
a parent association group
police station visits (outreach boys)
SNAP Youth Leadership for graduates

[source: CEBC; Blueprints; Public Safety Canada; Augimeri et al., 2012]. Augimeri et al. (2012) state there are nine components in total. Total duration: 4 months to 1.5 years [source: CEBC]. Criteria: intensity follows the EARL-informed risk/need judgement. Higher-risk families get more components and longer contact, and families "can keep receiving assistance" as long as needed under the continued-service principle [source: IDB summary; CEBC]. Specific numerical cut-offs for intensity are not published in the sources [uncertain].

Phase 3: Youth Leadership (ages ~11.5/12+). For SNAP graduates who need further skill-building, employment skills and protection from gang involvement. It includes individual counselling/mentoring, a weekly 2.5-hour Leadership Club during the school year, a Leaders-in-Training role in SNAP summer camp, and family and school supports [source: Public Safety Canada; CEBC]. The age range varies by source: 12–17 (Public Safety Canada) versus 11.5–14 (CEBC) [uncertain].

Variant: SNAP for Schools. Trained school staff, working with classroom teachers, run 12 weekly 40-minute groups for students teachers identify as disruptive. Teachers add 20-minute weekly classroom reviews and use SNAP principles day to day. Individual SNAP coaching is available as needed. A "Mental Health model" adds referral to mental-health workers, psychiatrists, psychologists and paediatricians [source: Public Safety Canada].

Variant: SNAP Girls (formerly SNAP Girls Connection). Same architecture with gender-specific group content and the EARL-21G [source: CrimeSolutions (Girls); Augimeri et al., 2012].

3. Guiding principles

CDI's stated key principles [source: CEBC], with practical meaning [synthesis unless marked]:

Scientist-practitioner. Measure at intake and discharge, review session video, and let outcome data shape practice. The model is revised over time as evidence accrues [source: Augimeri, 2017 slides].
Client-centred. Build scenarios, goals and plans from this child's and family's real situations and priorities, not generic examples.
Gender-sensitive. Boys and girls with similar problem levels may present differently, for example with more relational aggression in girls. Use the gender-specific group and the EARL-21G for girls [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].
Ecosystemic (multisystemic). Intervene with child, family, school and community together, not only in the group room [source: Augimeri et al., 2012; National Gang Center].
Strength- and skills-based. Teach and praise concrete skills, and frame the child as capable of becoming a "winner" rather than as a problem.
Continued service. Do not discharge on a fixed date. Step support down gradually, and keep the door open (parent association, Youth Leadership) [source: IDB summary].
Collaborative. Plans are made with parents, teachers and partner agencies (child welfare, police). Share the strategy so everyone uses the same language.
Community responsive. Adapt to the local population, culture and partners. CDI supports cultural adaptations through licensing [source: CEBC].
Accountable service excellence. Fidelity monitoring (SIFRS adherence and competency), pre-briefs and supervision are part of delivery, not optional extras [source: CEBC].

Additional stance principles from developer descriptions:

Emotions are normal; regulation is the target. Never shame anger. Coach what the child does with it [source: Lawrence].
Practice, repetition, reinforcement. Skills are acquired by rehearsal, so plan many short repetitions and praise every attempt [source: Lawrence; CEBC].
In-the-moment skill. The goal is self-control and problem-solving "in the moment", so practise under realistic arousal, not only in calm discussion [source: Augimeri, 2017 slides].
Parents as co-regulators. Parents learn to manage their own emotions first, then coach the child [source: CEBC].
Structured professional judgement. Use EARL ratings plus clinical judgement to match intensity to risk. The tool aids decisions and does not replace them [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].
Trauma-informed lens. Many referred children have experienced trauma, abuse or neglect. Read dysregulation as possibly trauma-linked [source: Lawrence; Augimeri et al., 2019 chapter cited by CEBC].
Theoretical base: cognitive-behavioural, attachment-based, social-learning, systems and feminist theory [source: CEBC].

4. Intervention inventory

Sources for this section: CEBC, Blueprints, Public Safety Canada, Augimeri et al. (2012), Lawrence (CDI interview), National Gang Center and the IDB summary. The CDI manuals are not drawn on here. Session scripts, worksheets and the EARL item content are proprietary and are not reproduced. Steps marked [synthesis] are the author's operationalisation of publicly described components. They are not the manual text.

A. Assessment and planning

4.1 Intake interviews and multi-informant ratings

Purpose / when: At referral, to establish eligibility (clinical-range externalising or conduct problems, or police contact), gather history and engage the family [source: Augimeri et al., 2012; National Gang Center].
Steps:
1. Interview the parent/guardian and the child separately [source: National Gang Center].
2. Obtain the parent's standardised behaviour ratings. Research sites used the CBCL family of measures [source: Lipman et al., 2008 via CEBC].
3. With written consent, contact the school and send the Teacher Report Form [source: CEBC].
4. Note child-welfare, police and other agency involvement, and get releases for collaboration [source: CEBC].
5. Screen for developmental delay. Significant delay was an exclusion criterion in research, so refer onward if present [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].
Example language (illustrative): "We help kids who get into a lot of trouble when they're upset learn to stop and make better plans, and we help parents at the same time. First I'd like to hear what's been happening at home and at school."
Watch for: blame-laden referrals ("he's a bad kid"); hidden trauma or protection concerns; a parent's own distress. The CDI interview reports that many parents find the behaviour less severe than they had believed once it is carefully assessed [source: Lawrence].

4.2 Structured risk/need assessment: EARL-20B (boys) / EARL-21G (girls)

Purpose / when: Before treatment, and again for discharge/continued-care planning. It structures clinical judgement about risk of future antisocial behaviour and sets treatment intensity [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].
Steps:
1. Complete EARL training first (EARL-V3 training is part of SNAP staff training) [source: Blueprints].
2. Gather information from interviews, file review, school and agencies.
3. Rate each item in three domains: Family (e.g., household circumstances, supports, stressors, parenting style, antisocial values), Child (e.g., developmental problems, onset of behaviour problems, trauma, impulsivity, peer socialisation, school functioning, coping) and Responsivity (family and child readiness to engage) [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].
4. Each item has a three-level rating (not / somewhat / present). Sum the ratings, then make an Overall Clinical Judgement of low, moderate or high risk. This judgement may depart from the total [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].
5. Use the girls' version for girls. It adds items on caregiver-daughter interaction and sexual development [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].
6. Translate the high-rated items into specific plan targets, e.g., parenting-style items lead to SNAPP family sessions, school-functioning items to advocacy/tutoring, and peer items to befriending/Youth Leadership [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): to a team: "Overall judgement moderate-high, driven by early onset, harsh inconsistent parenting and school exclusion; responsivity is good. Plan: core groups plus SNAPP and school advocacy."
Watch for: treating the total as a verdict rather than an aid to judgement. Also watch for sharing labels like "high risk" with families in stigmatising ways [synthesis]. Item wording and coding guides are licensed. Use the manual [source: Augimeri et al., 2012].

4.3 Individual service plan (core + supporting components)

Purpose / when: After assessment, to set which components a family receives and at what intensity [source: Public Safety Canada; CEBC].
Steps (synthesis of sources):
1. Default every family to the 13-week concurrent core groups.
2. Add supporting components that match EARL-identified needs, at up to about 60 minutes a week each.
3. Set child and parent goals with the family.
4. Agree on information-sharing with the school and agencies.
5. Schedule a review at group graduation, using re-rated measures and EARL, to decide on stepping down, extending or moving to Youth Leadership.
Example language (illustrative): "Everyone starts with the 13-week groups. Because school has been so hard, we'll also add someone who can meet with his teacher and help him with reading."
Watch for: plans that overload a stressed family. Phase components in sequence rather than starting all at once [synthesis].

B. The child's SNAP strategy and its building blocks

4.4 The SNAP strategy (Stop Now And Plan)

Purpose / when: This is the core self-control and problem-solving technique. The child uses it at any moment of rising anger, frustration or temptation, such as being teased, wanting to steal, being blamed or feeling pressured by peers [source: Blueprints; CEBC; Augimeri et al., 2012].
Steps (as publicly described; exact manual wording not verified):
1. Stop. Notice that you are getting upset by recognising your own body's signals, e.g., fists, hot face or a fast heartbeat. The finger "snap" serves as a cue to switch from reacting to thinking [source: Lawrence].
2. Calm down. Use a calming action such as deep breaths, counting to ten or putting hands in pockets [source: Lawrence]. Use coping self-talk to keep going [source: Lawrence (a child "talked himself through" the steps); National Gang Center lists "cognitive self-instruction"]. The precise calming statements taught in the manual were not found [uncertain].
3. Now And Plan. Think of a plan and check it against three criteria: it makes the problem "smaller not bigger", it doesn't hurt anyone, and it still leaves you feeling like a winner [source: Augimeri quoted in Lawrence].
4. Do it, then reward yourself. Act on the plan and give yourself credit. "Rewarding Yourself" is a named session topic [source: Blueprints]. Linking self-reward as the final step of the strategy is [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "What's your body telling you right now? … Okay, snap: stop. Two big breaths with me. Now, what plan would make this smaller, not bigger? … Does that hurt anyone? Will you still feel like a winner? Then try it."
Watch for: the child reciting the acronym without slowing down. The test is a visible pause and a calmer body in role-play and real incidents. Parents and teachers should report the child stopping "in the moment" [synthesis; source: Augimeri, 2017 slides on in-the-moment use].

4.5 Body-cue and trigger awareness, including video feedback

Purpose / when: Early in the groups and whenever a child cannot tell they are escalating. This is the foundation of "Stop".
Steps:
1. Video-record role-plays. Group rooms are set up for recording [source: CEBC].
2. Replay the footage with the child and point out their own signs of escalation. One child had not known he made fists when angry [source: Lawrence].
3. Help the child name 2–3 personal "warning signs" and common triggers, and add them to their plan [synthesis].
4. Have parents and teachers prompt with the same cue words [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Let's watch that again. See your hands right there? That's your body saying 'I'm getting mad.' That's your signal to SNAP."
Watch for: shame at seeing oneself on video. Keep the feedback positive and focused on skill [source: Lawrence notes positive feedback in role-play]. Get consent for recording and follow agency storage rules [synthesis].

4.6 Calming and relaxation training

Purpose / when: Gives children physical ways to lower arousal before they plan. Relaxation training is a listed method [source: Blueprints].
Steps:
1. Teach a small set of techniques: slow deep breathing, counting, hands in pockets [source: Lawrence].
2. Rehearse each technique when calm.
3. Then rehearse it inside a role-play at mild arousal.
4. Have the child pick a favourite technique for their personal plan [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Breathe in like you're smelling pizza, out like you're cooling it. Let's do three."
Watch for: children using "calming" as stonewalling or walking off with no plan. Calming leads into planning and does not replace it [synthesis].

4.7 Coping self-talk and cognitive restructuring

Purpose / when: To interrupt hostile or justifying thoughts (e.g., "he did it on purpose", "I have to hit back") and replace them with self-instructions that support calm and planning. CEBC lists challenging cognitive distortions and cognitive restructuring; NGC lists cognitive self-instruction.
Steps (synthesis):
1. In discussion of a real incident, ask what the child was thinking.
2. Label unhelpful thinking in kid-friendly terms, e.g., jumping to conclusions about blame.
3. Generate alternative explanations.
4. Practise a short coping phrase the child chooses.
5. Rehearse it aloud in role-play, then quietly to themselves.
Example language (illustrative): "What else could explain why he bumped you? … What could you say inside your head to stay cool?"
Watch for: adult-imposed phrases the child won't use. Children's own words generalise better [synthesis].

4.8 Plan generation and evaluation ("smaller not bigger")

Purpose / when: The structured problem-solving step [source: IDB summary; CEBC].
Steps:
1. State the problem.
2. Brainstorm several plans.
3. Test each plan against the three criteria [source: Lawrence].
4. Choose one and rehearse it.
5. Afterwards, review what happened and adjust [synthesis for 1, 2, 4, 5].
Example language (illustrative): "Plan A, push him back: smaller or bigger? Plan B, tell the lunch supervisor: does it hurt anyone? Plan C, walk to the other game: do you still feel like a winner?"
Watch for: plans that are passive or unsafe. A "winner" plan should protect the child's dignity. Help them find assertive options [synthesis].

C. Children's group (SNAP Boys / SNAP Girls Club)

4.9 Running the children's group session

Purpose / when: 13 weekly 90-minute sessions, the core delivery vehicle [source: CEBC].
Steps:
1. Before each session, hold a staff pre-brief. These are required, at first together with the CDI Trainer/Consultant [source: CEBC].
2. Run the group with two Child Workers, at most 7 children in the same developmental age band [source: CEBC].
3. Methods come from the sources: guided discussion, modelling by leaders, role-play, relaxation training, practice and repetition, using the children's own experiences as scenarios, and reinforcement [source: Blueprints; CEBC].
4. Session flow (illustrative, not the manual's agenda): welcome and review of the week's real SNAP attempts, then the topic introduction and discussion, then leader modelling, then children's role-plays with feedback (often video-recorded), then calming practice, then rewards and refreshments (prize box) [source for prize box, refreshments: CEBC; Blueprints; ordering is synthesis]. The manual's actual agenda is [uncertain].
5. After each session, record attendance and adherence for the SIFRS fidelity system [source: CEBC].
Example language (illustrative): "Who used SNAP this week? Tell us what happened, what you noticed in your body, and what plan you made."
Watch for: the group turning into a lecture. Most time should be spent rehearsing. Peer contagion of deviant talk is a further risk; redirect it to plan-making [synthesis].

4.10 Group topic modules (SNAP Boys)

Named topics in the boys' group, as listed for the ORP/SNAP Boys version evaluated in Pittsburgh [source: Blueprints]. That list gives 10 topics across 13 weeks. How they are sequenced and spread, and the content of the remaining weeks, was not available [uncertain]. For each topic the core move is the same: identify the situation and body cues, SNAP, generate a "smaller not bigger" plan, role-play it and reward it. The sample scenarios below are [synthesis].

Joining In / Goal Setting. Aim: group rules, introducing SNAP, and setting personal goals. The child names one behaviour goal, e.g., "stop hitting my brother".
Stopping Stealing. Aim: resist the urge to take things. Role-play: seeing a friend's game card left on a desk. Plans include asking, walking away, and returning or owning up.
Rewarding Yourself. Aim: self-praise and self-reward after using SNAP, so the child doesn't depend on adults for reinforcement.
Fair Play. Aim: turn-taking, losing and cheating in games. Role-play: losing a board game in group, which is real-time practice.
Dealing with Angry Feelings. Aim: body cues, calming and anger plans. This is the topic where video feedback is most used.
Group Pressure. Aim: refusing peers' invitations to trouble while keeping face, i.e., "winner" plans for saying no.
Avoiding Trouble. Aim: spotting risky situations and places early and planning around them.
When You're Not So Sure. Aim: what to do in ambiguous situations, e.g., not knowing whether something is allowed. Check with an adult or wait.
Apologizing. Aim: when and how to apologise and repair harm. This links to restitution (4.22).
Dealing with Accusations / Being Blamed. Aim: staying calm when wrongly or rightly accused, and answering without escalating.
SNAP Girls topics. The gender-specific content for girls is not described in the sources. Secondary descriptions suggest attention to relational aggression and to girls' relationships and development, consistent with the EARL-21G items [uncertain].

4.11 Role-play and behavioural rehearsal

Purpose / when: Every session. This is the main skill-acquisition method [source: CEBC; Blueprints].
Steps:
1. Draw the scenario from a child's real recent incident [source: CEBC].
2. Leaders model a poor response, then a SNAP response (a common CBT format [synthesis]).
3. Have a child play themselves while a leader or peer plays the antagonist.
4. Give specific positive feedback [source: Lawrence].
5. Replay the scene at slightly higher intensity until the child can SNAP under realistic provocation [synthesis].
6. Video and replay it where useful [source: CEBC; Lawrence].
Example language (illustrative): "Freeze! What's your body doing? Good, you caught it. Rewind, and this time show us your SNAP."
Watch for: overarousal, a child who becomes genuinely aggressive, and peers mocking. Set rules first, keep provocations scripted and mild, and give a "pause" signal [synthesis].

4.12 Reinforcement system (prize box, praise, self-reward)

Purpose / when: Throughout, to strengthen new behaviour. Reinforcement learning is a named technique, and a prize box is a standard program material [source: CEBC; Blueprints].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Give immediate specific praise for any attempt at stopping or planning.
2. Award points or tokens for participation and successful role-plays, exchangeable at the prize box.
3. Teach self-reward (topic 4.10).
4. Coordinate with parents so home rewards target the same behaviours (4.15).
Example language (illustrative): "You noticed your fists before anyone told you, and you took a breath. That's a real SNAP. Pick from the box."
Watch for: reward inflation and children disputing points. Keep the criteria visible and simple [synthesis].

4.13 Goal setting and tracking (child)

Purpose / when: Week 1 ("Joining In/Goal Setting") and reviewed weekly [source: Blueprints].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Help the child choose one or two concrete, observable goals.
2. Agree how they will be noticed at home and school.
3. Review progress at the start of each group.
4. Celebrate progress and adjust goals.
Example language (illustrative): "What's one thing you want to get better at in the next 13 weeks? How will your mom know it's happening?"
Watch for: goals that are about not being "bad". Reframe them as skills to do [synthesis].

4.14 Police station visits

Purpose / when: Reported for boys in outreach groups, where participants learn about staying out of trouble [source: Public Safety Canada].
Steps: Arrange a visit with a cooperating police service through the program's police-community protocol. Prepare the children beforehand, debrief afterwards, and link it to the Avoiding Trouble and Group Pressure topics [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Today we'll meet officers whose job is to keep kids safe. Afterwards we'll talk about plans that keep you out of trouble."
Watch for: fear or trauma reactions in children with negative police experiences, and "scared straight"-style messaging, which should be avoided. The visit is relational and informational [synthesis]. Its exact format is not described in the sources [uncertain].

D. Parent/caregiver group (concurrent, 13 × 90 min)

Topics named across sources:

From the ORP/Pittsburgh version: stopping stealing, routines, listening, monitoring, self-control and problem-solving, time-out, and encouraging and rewarding [source: Blueprints].
From the 4th-edition targets: limit setting, positive reinforcement, conflict resolution and stress management, family communication and co-regulation [source: CEBC].
From the CDI interview: child management, listening, routines, rewarding the child, and parent goals [source: Lawrence].

The sessions use a social-learning approach to family management [source: Blueprints].

4.15 Running the parent group, with parent goal setting and missed-session follow-up

Purpose / when: Every week, alongside the children's group. Parents learn what their children are learning, how to reinforce it at home, and practical help with their own challenges [source: Public Safety Canada].
Steps:
1. One or two Family Workers lead the group [source: CEBC].
2. Open with a review of the week at home.
3. Present the week's parenting topic and link it to that week's child topic, e.g., stopping stealing for both groups [synthesis on linking].
4. Model and role-play the skill [synthesis].
5. Have each parent set two kinds of goals and track them weekly: a personal goal (self-care, e.g., taking an hour to rest) and a relationship goal (e.g., listening to the child more) [source: Lawrence].
6. When a parent misses a session, the Parent Group Leader phones or visits, reviews the content and leaves a written summary [source: Blueprints].
Example language (illustrative): "This week the kids practised what to do when they're blamed. At home, when you catch him SNAPping after an accusation, say exactly what he did well."
Watch for: parents who arrive in crisis. Allow brief check-ins and offer individual follow-up rather than derailing the group. Also watch for parents who expect the group to "fix" the child alone [synthesis].

4.16 SNAP for parents: own self-control and co-regulation

Purpose / when: From early in the group. Caregivers learn to manage their own emotions and use the same Stop-calm-plan sequence in parenting moments, so they can co-regulate the child [source: CEBC]. The individual form is called "Stop Now And Plan Parenting" (SNAPP) [source: Augimeri et al., 2012; IDB summary].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Parents identify their own triggers and body cues during child misbehaviour.
2. They practise calming and choose a plan that makes the problem "smaller not bigger" for the family.
3. They rehearse common flashpoints (bedtime, homework, sibling fights) in role-play.
4. They learn to prompt the child's SNAP calmly instead of escalating.
Example language (illustrative): "Before you respond, do your own SNAP. What's your body doing? What plan keeps this small?"
Watch for: parental mental-health problems, substance use or partner violence underlying the dysregulation. Refer onward or add family counselling [synthesis].

4.17 Encouraging and rewarding (positive reinforcement)

Purpose / when: A core topic for increasing positive behaviour and SNAP use at home [source: Blueprints; CEBC].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Choose 1–2 target behaviours.
2. Practise specific labelled praise.
3. Set up a simple home reward chart tied to the child's group goals.
4. Reward attempts, not just perfection.
5. Review the chart in group each week.
Example language (illustrative): "Try catching him being good five times a day and saying exactly what he did."
Watch for: rewards withdrawn as punishment, and charts abandoned after a week. Troubleshoot in group [synthesis].

4.18 Routines

Purpose / when: Predictable routines reduce flashpoints. This is a named parent topic [source: Blueprints; Lawrence].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Map the family's daily hot spots.
2. Build a simple visual routine for one hot spot, e.g., mornings.
3. Rehearse transitions with warnings.
4. Review what worked.
Example language (illustrative): "Which part of the day blows up most? Let's build that one routine together."
Watch for: chaotic households (housing, shift work) where routines must be minimal and realistic [synthesis].

4.19 Listening and family communication

Purpose / when: Strengthen the parent-child relationship and reduce coercive cycles. Named topics are listening and effective family communication [source: Blueprints; CEBC].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Teach reflective listening: name the child's feeling and summarise before responding.
2. Schedule brief daily one-to-one time.
3. Practise calm, clear requests.
4. Practise conflict-resolution steps for family disputes [source: CEBC lists conflict resolution].
Example language (illustrative): "Sounds like you felt really unfair being blamed. Tell me what happened."
Watch for: listening collapsing into lecturing. Have parents practise in dyads with feedback [synthesis].

4.20 Monitoring and stopping stealing (parent side)

Purpose / when: Supervision lowers opportunities for antisocial behaviour. Stopping stealing is a parallel parent topic [source: Blueprints].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Agree on rules about where the child is, with whom and when.
2. Check in regularly.
3. For stealing: stay calm, establish the facts without trapping the child into lying, return the item or make amends, and apply a planned consequence.
4. Reward honesty.
Example language (illustrative): "When something goes missing, the plan is calm questions, return it, make it right. No yelling, no interrogation."
Watch for: monitoring that becomes surveillance or harsh control. Watch also for neighbourhood risks the parent cannot control; link to community supports [synthesis].

4.21 Limit setting and time-out

Purpose / when: Consistent, non-coercive consequences replace harsh, lax or inconsistent discipline. Named topics are time-out and limit setting [source: Blueprints; CEBC].
Steps (synthesis, standard social-learning practice; the SNAP manual's specific time-out procedure is [uncertain]):
1. Choose a few clear house rules.
2. Give one calm warning.
3. Use a brief, planned, non-humiliating time-out or a loss of privilege.
4. Keep it predictable and brief.
5. Reconnect afterwards and praise the next good behaviour.
6. The parent does their own SNAP first (4.16).
Example language (illustrative): "You hit your sister, so that's a time-out. When it's over we'll make a plan for next time."
Watch for: time-out used in anger, prolonged, or in frightening places. That is not acceptable. With trauma-exposed or attachment-disrupted children, emphasise co-regulation and staying nearby. Any physical discipline is a safeguarding concern [synthesis].

E. Supporting (risk/need-matched) components

4.22 Victim restitution

Purpose / when: When the child has harmed or stolen from someone. Listed as a component in SNAP Boys and Youth Leadership services [source: CEBC; Public Safety Canada].
Steps (synthesis):
1. With the parent, and with the victim where appropriate and safe, agree on a proportionate, age-appropriate repair: return the item, an apology (topic "Apologizing"), or a small helpful task.
2. Rehearse the apology in session first.
3. Debrief afterwards and praise the repair.
Example language (illustrative): "What would make this right with Mr. Lee? Let's practise what you'll say."
Watch for: restitution that becomes public shaming. Keep it private and dignified. The CDI procedure is not described in the sources [uncertain].

4.23 Individualised family counselling (SNAPP)

Purpose / when: For families whose EARL family-domain ratings or progress show they need more than group. It applies "stop now and plan your parenting" one-to-one and may continue after the group ends [source: Augimeri et al., 2012; IDB summary; CEBC].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Meet weekly (up to about 60 min) at home or the clinic [source for intensity: CEBC].
2. Choose one recurring conflict.
3. Coach the parent's own SNAP and their prompting of the child's SNAP, live where possible.
4. Involve siblings and other caregivers in family sessions [source: CEBC].
5. Address stressors identified on the EARL.
Example language (illustrative): "Let's replay last night's homework fight. Where could you have SNAPped first?"
Watch for: issues outside scope (domestic violence, serious parental mental illness). Refer and coordinate [synthesis].

4.24 Parent Association Group

Purpose / when: Ongoing peer support after the parent group ends, held twice monthly in the ORP version [source: Blueprints].
Steps (synthesis): Hold a semi-structured meeting with a skill refresher, problem-solving of current challenges and peer support, facilitated by a Family Worker.
Example language (illustrative): "Bring one SNAP win and one stuck spot from the last two weeks."
Watch for: dwindling attendance. Use reminders and pair it with child activities [synthesis].

4.25 Individual befriending / mentoring

Purpose / when: For children who need a positive adult relationship, more skill coaching or links to community activities. A staff member or volunteer acts as a mentor, similar to Big Brothers/Big Sisters [source: Blueprints; CEBC].
Steps (synthesis):
1. Match the child with a mentor.
2. Hold regular one-to-one outings or sessions where the mentor coaches SNAP in real settings.
3. Connect the child to prosocial recreation (sports, clubs).
4. Report progress to the team.
Example language (illustrative): "When the game gets heated today, I'll give you the signal, and you show me your SNAP."
Watch for: boundary and safeguarding issues in one-to-one work. Follow agency policies. Plan endings carefully for children with attachment disruption [synthesis].

4.26 School advocacy and teacher consultation

Purpose / when: When school functioning is a risk factor, which it often is. Share SNAP with teachers and administration and advocate for the child's education [source: Public Safety Canada; CEBC; IDB summary].
Steps:
1. With consent, obtain the TRF and teacher input [source: CEBC].
2. Meet the teacher to explain the strategy and agree on a shared cue for prompting SNAP [synthesis].
3. Advocate at school meetings, e.g., about suspensions or support plans [source: CEBC; synthesis on specifics].
4. CEBC notes that school advocacy may include responsive pedagogy and anti-racism education [source: CEBC].
Example language (illustrative): to a teacher: "When you see his fists clench, a quiet 'SNAP' and a nod gives him the chance to use his plan before it escalates."
Watch for: schools using the label punitively. Keep the framing strength-based [synthesis].

4.27 Academic support (tutoring / homework club)

Purpose / when: For children with academic difficulties, reading in particular [source: Blueprints; Public Safety Canada].
Steps (synthesis): Assess academic needs (reading especially). Arrange weekly tutoring or a homework club. Prompt SNAP when the child is frustrated with schoolwork.
Example language (illustrative): "This page is tough. SNAP: breathe, then what's your plan? Ask me, or try the first line?"
Watch for: undiagnosed learning disabilities. Refer for assessment [synthesis].

4.28 Crisis intervention

Purpose / when: Family crises such as violence, placement breakdown or police incidents [source: Blueprints; Public Safety Canada].
Steps (synthesis, standard practice):
1. Respond promptly.
2. Assess immediate safety, including child-protection concerns and any self-harm risk, using your agency's standard risk-assessment protocol.
3. De-escalate using the family's SNAP language.
4. Make a short-term safety plan and link to emergency services where needed.
5. Review the service plan afterwards.
Example language (illustrative): "Right now the plan is just to keep everyone safe tonight. Let's work out who goes where."
Watch for: reporting duties (see 5).

4.29 Sibling activity group and family involvement

Purpose / when: Each core-group week. Siblings attend a parallel activity group so parents can attend, and siblings join SNAP family sessions [source: CEBC; Blueprints].
Steps (synthesis): Run supervised activities for siblings. Introduce the SNAP language to siblings so the family shares it. Include siblings in role-plays during family sessions.
Example language (illustrative): "Your brother is learning to SNAP. Can you help by giving him a minute when he says he needs one?"
Watch for: siblings who are victims of the referred child's aggression. Assess their safety [synthesis].

F. Program variants and quality assurance

4.30 SNAP for Schools

Purpose / when: Elementary students whom teachers identify as struggling with disruptive behaviour [source: Public Safety Canada].
Steps:
1. Trained school personnel run 12 weekly 40-minute SNAP groups together with classroom teachers.
2. Teachers deliver weekly 20-minute classroom review sessions and apply SNAP principles every day.
3. Add individual SNAP coaching when needed.
4. In the Mental Health model, add referrals to mental-health workers, psychiatrists, psychologists and paediatricians [source: Public Safety Canada].
Example language (illustrative): in class review: "Who used SNAP at recess this week? What plan made it smaller?"
Watch for: the parent component may be thinner in schools. Find ways to inform and involve parents [synthesis].

4.31 SNAP Youth Leadership

Purpose / when: Graduates around age 11.5/12 and older who need further skills, employment preparation or protection from gang involvement [source: CEBC; Public Safety Canada].
Steps:
1. Individual counselling/mentoring on relationships, SNAP reinforcement and goal setting.
2. A weekly 2.5-hour Boys or Girls Leadership Club during the school year.
3. An employment continuum, including the Leaders-in-Training role at SNAP summer camp.
4. Parent support, school advocacy, family counselling, caregiver workshops, crisis intervention, restitution and homework club as needed [source: Public Safety Canada].
Example language (illustrative): "You've learned to SNAP. Now you'll help younger kids learn it at camp."
Watch for: antisocial peer clustering. Keep groups structured and adult-led [synthesis].

4.32 Fidelity monitoring and supervision

Purpose / when: Throughout delivery. This is required under licensing [source: CEBC].
Steps:
1. Hold pre-briefs before every group.
2. The Trainer/Consultant and Program Manager rate an adherence checklist for each core group using the SNAP Integrity and Fidelity Rating System (SIFRS).
3. Facilitators complete competency goal ratings with their manager.
4. Use the video-recorded sessions for consultation. Consultation hours step down over four years (about 60, 52, 40 and 14 hours), then 1–2 sessions per year are reviewed [source: CEBC].
Example language (illustrative): in supervision: "Let's watch the role-play at minute 40. Where did the kids get a real rehearsal and where did we lecture?"
Watch for: drift toward discussion-only groups and dropped components [synthesis].

5. Handling problems

The sources describe the structures that prevent problems (continued service, missed-session outreach, crisis intervention, risk-need matching, pre-briefs and fidelity consultation). They give little guidance on handling specific in-session difficulties. Everything below is [synthesis] unless a source is given.

Family won't engage or drops out. Missed parent sessions trigger a phone call or home visit, a review of the content and a written summary [source: Blueprints]. Reduce practical barriers: transport tokens, refreshments and sibling child care are standard resources [source: CEBC]. Offer home-based SNAPP sessions (4.23). The EARL Responsivity items flag low engagement early; plan more outreach when they are rated high [source: Augimeri et al., 2012 for the item; synthesis for the response].
Child refuses to participate or disrupts group. Give the child a role (helper or timekeeper). Use the reinforcement system for small approximations. Seat them next to a co-leader. Let them observe a role-play before acting in one. Use the second Child Worker for brief one-to-one coaching outside the room rather than ejecting the child. If the child is persistently unsafe, add individual coaching and review group fit with the supervisor.
Escalation or aggression during role-play (overwhelm). Stop the scene with the pre-agreed pause signal. The leader models SNAP aloud, guides the child through calming, and debriefs only once the child is calm. Lower the intensity next time. Treat it as real-time practice, not failure. If anyone is hurt, follow incident procedures and inform parents.
Child knows the acronym but doesn't use it outside the room (generalisation failure). Give parents and teachers the same cue word. Use real incidents from the past week as role-play material [source: CEBC on using real experiences]. Increase reinforcement for out-of-group attempts. Add befriending or school coaching to prompt SNAP in context (4.25, 4.26, 4.30).
Parent non-adherence (no praise, harsh discipline continues). Find out what is getting in the way: stress, beliefs about "spoiling", or the parent's own dysregulation. Set a smaller goal. Rehearse it in session. Use the parent's personal goal (self-care) as well as the relationship goal [source: Lawrence]. Move to individual SNAPP if group alone isn't enough.
Parent blames the child or the program (rupture with parent). Validate their exhaustion. Remind them that both groups are learning the same skill. Share small wins and video moments. Repair openly: "I pushed the reward chart before hearing how hard evenings are. Let's start where you are." (illustrative)
Rupture with child (feels picked on, singled out on video). Apologise for what landed badly. Give control back ("you choose whether we replay it"). Keep video feedback positive and private where needed [source: Lawrence on positive feedback].
Trauma reactions. Many children have experienced abuse, neglect or trauma [source: Lawrence; Augimeri et al., 2012 includes Trauma as an EARL item]. Watch for freezing, dissociation or reactions to raised voices in role-play. Adjust the scenarios. Emphasise calming and co-regulation. Refer for trauma-focused treatment alongside SNAP when trauma symptoms are prominent. The CDI trauma-informed chapter (Augimeri et al., 2019) is not drawn on here [uncertain].
Callous-unemotional traits, or little response to praise. Use clearer, more immediate tangible reinforcement and emphasise warmth in the parent-child relationship. Monitor closely. RCT work found SNAP benefits in boys with conduct problems and CU traits (Byrd et al., 2018, cited by CEBC), but the sources give no CU-specific procedure [uncertain].
ADHD, learning or language problems. Use shorter segments, visual cues, movement breaks and more repetitions. Recommend or coordinate assessment and medical review (no dosing here). Children with significant developmental delay were excluded in research. For them, adapt heavily or use a different program [source: Augimeri et al., 2012 for the exclusion].
Girls presenting with relational aggression. Use SNAP Girls and the EARL-21G, not the boys' group [source: Augimeri et al., 2012; CrimeSolutions (Girls)].
Mixed-age or wide-ability group. Respect the 6–7 / 8–9 / 10–11 banding and the maximum of 7 children [source: CEBC]. Do not combine bands just to fill a group.
Peer contagion (deviancy training). Keep the structure tight. Interrupt glamorised stories of misbehaviour and turn them into planning practice. Reinforce prosocial talk. In Youth Leadership, keep adult-led structure.
Police contact or new offence during treatment. Treat it as an assessment point. Update the EARL rating and increase intensity (crisis intervention, family counselling, restitution). Coordinate with police through the referral protocol [source: Augimeri et al., 2012 on the police-community protocol; specifics synthesis].
Child-protection concerns. Physical abuse, neglect or domestic violence disclosed in group, in role-play or by siblings requires reporting under local mandatory reporting law. Child-welfare collaboration is part of the model [source: CEBC], so explain the limits of confidentiality at intake.
Suicidal statements or self-harm by child or parent. Follow your agency's standard risk assessment and safety planning. Lethal-means counselling covers safe storage or removal of medications, firearms and other means at home. Refer urgently where indicated. SNAP is not a crisis or suicide-prevention intervention.
Ending too early or abruptly. Under the continued-service principle, step support down after graduation rather than discharging outright. Offer the parent association group, booster contact and Youth Leadership [source: CEBC; Blueprints].
Program drift at the agency level. Use the pre-briefs, SIFRS ratings and CDI consultation [source: CEBC]. Delivering parts of SNAP without a licence or without a parent group departs from the model. Label any such work honestly as "SNAP-informed".

Sources

Sources:

Further reading (not drawn on; details via the profiles above):

Child Development Institute (2022). SNAP® Boys children's group manual (4th ed.) and SNAP® Boys parent group manual (4th ed.). Toronto: CDI. Licensed.
Child Development Institute (2024). SNAP Facilitators Guide; SNAP Procedures Guide.
Augimeri, L. K., Farrington, D. P., Koegl, C. J., & Day, D. M. (2007). The SNAP Under 12 Outreach Project: Effects of a community based program for children with conduct problems. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 799–807.
Augimeri, L. K., Walsh, M., Liddon, A. D., & Dassinger, C. R. (2011). From risk identification to risk management: A comprehensive strategy for young children engaged in antisocial behavior. In D. W. Springer & A. Roberts (Eds.), Juvenile Justice and Delinquency. Jones & Bartlett.
Augimeri, L. K., Walsh, M., Kivlenieks, M., & Pepler, D. (2017). Addressing children's disruptive behavior problems: A thirty-year journey with Stop Now And Plan (SNAP). In P. Sturmey (Ed.), The Wiley Handbook of Violence and Aggression. Wiley.
Augimeri, L. K., Rajca, E., Verpoort, M., Blackman, A., & Walsh, M. (2019). Using a trauma informed lens to understand and implement evidence-based practices with children experiencing disruptive behavior in school and beyond. In C. Bennell & J. Pozzulo (Eds.), Working with Trauma-Exposed Children and Adolescents. Routledge.
Burke, J. D., & Loeber, R. (2015). The effectiveness of the Stop Now and Plan (SNAP) program for boys at risk for violence and delinquency. Prevention Science, 16, 242–253. (Europe PMC full text refused with HTTP 429.)
Burke, J. D., & Loeber, R. (2016). Mechanisms of behavioral and affective treatment outcomes in a cognitive behavioral intervention for boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44, 179–189.
Lipman, E. L., et al. (2008). Evaluation of a community-based program for young boys at-risk of antisocial behavior. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 12–19.
Pepler, D., Walsh, M., & Levene, K. (2004). Interventions for aggressive girls: Tailoring and measuring the fit. In M. Moretti, C. Odgers & M. Jackson (Eds.), Girls and Aggression. Kluwer.
Byrd, A. I., Hawes, S. W., Burke, J. D., Loeber, R., & Pardini, D. A. (2018). Boys with conduct problems and callous-unemotional traits. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 30, 51–59.

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