Structured cognitive-behavioural training

1. Introduction

Version followed: the umbrella category as defined by Wilson, Bouffard & MacKenzie (2005). Concrete procedures come from three named programmes in that lineage: NIC's Thinking for a Change (T4C), using the 5.0 structure with 4.0 differences noted; Reasoning and Rehabilitation (R&R), as described in Ross & Fabiano's cognitive model and in programme descriptions of R&R and R&R2; and Moral Reconation Therapy (MRT; Little & Robinson / Correctional Counseling Inc.), as described in a CCI trainer's practice notes and a 2022 programme description.

This is a category, not a single therapy. "Structured cognitive-behavioural training" covers manualised group programmes for people under justice supervision. Wilson et al. used four defining features: a cognitive-behavioural model, delivery in a group, a structured or semi-structured protocol, and the aim of reducing criminal behaviour. The named programmes include MRT, R&R and a range of cognitive-restructuring courses [source: Wilson et al. 2005 abstract, NCJRS]. No one founder or manual covers the whole category. To deliver it you choose a licensed programme and follow its manual. This guide sets out the procedures those programmes share and the components particular to each.

Core idea of change. Offending is maintained by thinking: distorted beliefs, impulsive "react, don't think" responding, egocentric perspective, weak means-ends problem solving, and the belief that events control you. It is also maintained by missing social skills. Change happens when participants (a) learn to notice the thoughts, feelings, attitudes and beliefs that lead to risky behaviour, and replace them, and (b) build and rehearse prosocial skills and a step-by-step problem-solving method until those skills generalise to real situations [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 3, 17–18, 42–49; Clark 2011]. T4C's own summary of this is "Change their thinking, change their behavior, and change their lives" [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information]. MRT adds a moral-development route. It holds that problem behaviour stems partly from underdeveloped moral reasoning (drawing on Kohlberg) and works on that through graded step work and public testimony on a 16-step "Freedom Ladder" [source: Harrell et al. 2022].

2. Framework

Generic structure (all programmes) [source: Wilson et al. 2005; Clark 2011]

Closed or rolling groups of people under justice supervision, in custody or the community. Setting (prison vs community) did not change outcomes in Lipsey et al.'s review [source: Lipsey et al. 2007 abstract].
Sessions are scripted lessons. Teaching uses modelling, role play and demonstration, followed by homework or between-session practice. Individual counselling is sometimes added [source: Clark 2011].
Branded programmes typically run about 20–30 sessions [source: Clark 2011].

Phase 0: Selection and preparation (before session 1)

Goal: enrol people the programme is built for, and remove barriers to attendance.
T4C: medium- to high-risk participants on a validated risk tool. Named examples are ORAS, OYAS, LS-CMI, YLS-CMI and PIC-R. Ideal members have high criminogenic need in thinking patterns and skill deficits such as poor coping, impulsivity, poor problem solving and poor emotion regulation [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Hold a 5–10-minute individual pre-screen covering rapport, expectations, non-negotiables, reading and writing ability, schedule and attendance barriers. Arrange literacy support where needed [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
R&R2 was designed to suit lower-risk and pre-offending young people too, whereas original R&R targeted medium- to high-risk offenders [source: Sánchez-SanSegundo et al. 2020].

T4C phase sequence (25 lessons plus aftercare) [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; T4C 5.0 Introductory Information]

Phase	Lessons	Goal
Social skills I	1 Introduction; 2 Active Listening; 3 Asking Questions; 4 Giving Feedback; 5 Knowing Your Feelings	Group norms and the foundation skills the rest of the course depends on
Cognitive self-change	6 Thinking Controls Our Behavior; 7 Pay Attention to Our Thinking; 8 Recognizing Risk; 9 Use New Thinking; 10 Thinking Check-In	Self-reflection that uncovers the thinking linked to risky behaviour, and replaces it
Social skills II	11 Understanding the Feelings of Others; 12 Responding to the Feelings of Others; 13 Responding to an Accusation; 14 Responding to Anger; 15 Negotiating	Advanced, conflict-relevant interpersonal skills
Problem solving	16 Introduction; 17 Stop and Think; 18 State the Problem; 19 Set a Goal and Gather Information; 20 Practice Skills (steps 1–3); 21 Think of Choices and Outcomes; 22 Make a Plan; 23 Do and Evaluate; 24 Problem Solving Application	A stepwise method for stressful real-life conflicts
Transition	25 Celebration and Transition	Consolidate learning and plan aftercare
Aftercare	Open-ended Program Check-In	Apply skills to current situations. Aftercare can add up to 41 further social skills beyond the core curriculum's nine

Lesson colour code in 5.0: social skills red, cognitive self-change blue, problem solving green [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Earlier versions (3.x/4.0) used the same three components. Some lesson titles in the social-skills block may differ [uncertain: earlier lesson plans are not drawn on].

T4C format and dose

8–12 members in person; no more than 8–10 online.
Sessions run about 2.5 hours in 5.0 (the stated maximum). Version 4.0 gave 1–2 hours.
Frequency is ideally twice a week: at least once, at most three times.
About 75 contact hours in person, or 90–100 hours virtually with online "dosage modules" of about 30–60 minutes each. In 4.0 a cycle was about 30 sessions, because many lessons take two sessions.
Groups are closed. No new members after Lesson 4 in 5.0 (Lesson 5 was the cut-off in 4.0).
Two trained facilitators run each group, plus an optional untrained assistant.

[source: NIC T4C 4.0 page; T4C 5.0 Introductory Information]

T4C criteria for moving on

Never start a new lesson straight after finishing one. Members must first practise the current skill through practice work.
A lesson is not complete until every member has had a tryout (role play).

[source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information; T4C 5.0 lesson list]

R&R / R&R2

Original R&R: 35 sessions of about 2 hours each. Modules cover problem solving, social skills, negotiation, emotion management, creative thinking, values enhancement, critical reasoning and cognitive exercises [source: Fogg 1992 abstract].
R&R2: a shorter structured version of 12–15 sessions (one trial used twelve 2-hour sessions). It is delivered through games, practical skill work and facilitated discussion by trained facilitators [source: Sánchez-SanSegundo et al. 2020].
Variants include youth versions (Ross & Hilborn 2003, 2004) and R&R2M for mentally disordered offenders (Young et al. 2010) [source: cited in Sánchez-SanSegundo et al. 2020].
Session-by-session criteria for moving on were not found [uncertain].

MRT [source: Harrell et al. 2022; McKeen, MRT mishaps]

Participants work through a workbook, How to Escape Your Prison (Little & Robinson 2006), step by step. The 16-step Freedom Ladder maps steps onto stages:
- Disloyalty (steps 1–2): honesty and trust
- Opposition (3): acceptance
- Uncertainty (4): awareness
- Injury (5–6): healing relationships and receiving help
- Non-existence (7–8): long-term goals, identity and short-term consistency
- Danger (9–10): commitment to change and keeping it up
- Emergence (11): moral commitments
- Normal (12): moral goals
- Grace (13–16): the relation between inner self and personality
Descriptions give 12–16 steps or lessons, depending on the programme book [uncertain].
Criterion for moving on: each step is presented in group and passed before the next starts. Steps 1 and 2 require a group testimony. Before presenting, a participant must say from memory which step they are on, what it is about and where it sits on the Ladder. Step 1 should be attempted within the first three group sessions, with three testimony attempts allowed before the work goes to programme staff.
The facilitator handbook describes four group stages: formation; conflict and power struggles; cohesiveness; continuation or ending [source: Harrell et al. 2022, citing Little & Robinson 2009].
Session length, frequency, group size and whether groups are open-ended are not described in the sources [uncertain]. In common practice MRT groups are rolling, but this was not verified.

3. Guiding principles

Thinking controls behaviour. Every exercise traces an action back to the thoughts, feelings, attitudes and beliefs behind it [source: T4C lesson 6 title; Multnomah CSC slides].
Present focus; the client owns their thinking. Work on current and recent situations, not life history, and do not accept "he made me" as the end of the analysis [source: Clark 2011]. MRT likewise steers members away from sharing personal histories and towards the exercises [source: Harrell et al. 2022].
Objectivity before change. Thoughts are first reported exactly as they occurred, without judging them good or bad, as information about the mind. Correcting comes later. In practice, stop members (and yourself) from moralising during a thinking report [source: Multnomah CSC slides].
Skills are learned by doing. Skills are modelled, rehearsed and given feedback, then transferred through overlearning and practice in varied settings. Explaining a skill is not enough; everyone does a tryout [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 32–36, 51–53; T4C 5.0].
Risk and need targeting. Enrol medium- to high-risk people with thinking and skill deficits, and keep the content on criminogenic targets [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Fidelity: a script, not a guide. T4C facilitators must "stick to the script" and prepare at least 60 minutes per lesson. Lipsey et al. found implementation quality and well-trained providers mattered more than which brand was used. Deliver the manual as written, and adapt only through its own options [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information; Lipsey et al. 2007].
Dose matters. More sessions attended went with larger reductions in reoffending, so chase attendance and make up missed lessons [source: Clark 2011].
Non-coercive group management. Desired facilitator traits are empathy, patience, objectivity, teaching skill and flexibility, with groups managed by non-coercive means. Staff should never be forced to facilitate. Hold limits without threats [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Challenge reasoning, not the person. Confrontation may be needed to expose flawed reasoning, but it should not be demeaning. Prefer dialectical discussion and intellectual challenge to bare criticism. Ask questions that let members find the flaw themselves [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 31–32].
Let members own their change. Ross & Fabiano note a programme that avoided coercion so offenders would not credit their change to an outside force. Highlight members' own choices when progress happens [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, p. 27].
Prosocial modelling. Facilitators consistently model prosocial attitudes, moral reasoning and problem solving, in how they handle their own frustration in the room as well [source: Clark 2011; Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 34–35].
Consistent accountability (MRT). Define major and minor rules, respond to each consistently, and require violations to be brought to group. Inconsistency stalls progress [source: McKeen, MRT mishaps].
Group safety and norms. Minimum norms are: confidentiality with disclosed limits; respecting what is shared; taking turns; no physical or verbal aggression. Set these in lesson 1 and refer back to them [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Responsivity in group composition. Accommodate literacy. Avoid mixed-gender groups because of trauma triggers, power dynamics and distraction. Keep people being treated for sexual offences in separate groups. Use one programme and one book per group [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information; McKeen, MRT mishaps].
Readiness and wraparound. Willingness to change matters, so assess readiness and build engagement. CBT worked better alongside supervision, employment, education and other mental-health services. Coordinate with the case manager rather than running the group in isolation [source: Clark 2011].

4. Intervention inventory

The inventory is grouped as follows:

A: group structures common to all programmes
B: cognitive self-change / cognitive restructuring
C: social skills training
D: problem solving and self-regulation
E: R&R-specific modules
F: MRT step work
G: generalisation and aftercare

Programme manuals are copyrighted. Steps below are paraphrased, and where the published manual's exact step list is not drawn on, the breakdown is marked [synthesis].

A. Group structures common to all programmes

A1. Pre-group screening interview

Purpose / when: before enrolment, to confirm the person is suitable and to remove barriers [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Steps:
1. Check the risk/need score from a validated tool.
2. In 5–10 minutes, build rapport and explain what the group is: a structured skills class with practice work, not a talking group.
3. State the non-negotiables: attendance, practice work, group norms, limits of confidentiality and agency reporting duties.
4. Check reading and writing, and arrange support where needed.
5. Check the schedule and attendance barriers (work, transport, childcare, custody movements).
6. Confirm a start date at the beginning of a cycle, since the group is closed.
Example language (illustrative): "This group is more like a class where you practise skills than a place to tell your story. There'll be practice work between sessions. Is there anything that would get in the way of you making two sessions a week?"
Watch for: hidden literacy problems, such as declining to read aloud or "forgetting glasses". Watch too for clashes in the schedule that predict dropout. Working: the person can say back what the group involves and has a plan for attendance [synthesis].

A2. Establishing group norms (Lesson 1)

Purpose / when: first session, then referred back to whenever needed [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Steps:
1. Present the minimum norms: confidentiality (with harm and agency-reporting exceptions stated explicitly); respecting what is shared and keeping comments constructive; taking turns and staying on topic; no physical or verbal aggression.
2. Ask members to add norms. Agree them and display them in every session.
3. Explain how the programme works: the three components, practice work and tryouts.
Example language (illustrative): "What's said here stays here, with one exception I have to be upfront about: if something suggests someone could be harmed, or if it's something my agency requires me to report, I can't keep it in the room."
Watch for: members testing the norms early (sarcasm, side talk). Name the norm calmly the first time it is broken. Working: by session 2–3, members prompt each other about the norms [synthesis].

A3. Standard lesson sequence (T4C)

Purpose / when: every lesson [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information; T4C 5.0 lesson list].
Steps:
1. Each member reports on practice work.
2. Introduce the new concept or skill from the script, using the "What to do" (actions) and "What to say" (script) columns.
3. Facilitators demonstrate the skill using the model script from the lesson supplement.
4. Each member does a tryout (role play) of the skill on a situation from their own life.
5. Structured feedback follows each tryout.
6. Assign practice work.
7. Do not move to the next lesson until members have practised. Many lessons take two sessions.
Example language (illustrative): "Before we learn anything new, let's hear how the practice work went. Who used Asking Questions this week?"
Watch for: sessions drifting into open discussion and running out of time before tryouts. Tryouts are the active ingredient, so protect time for them [synthesis]. Working: every member has a tryout and receives feedback.

A4. Facilitator preparation and co-facilitation

Purpose: fidelity [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information; Lipsey et al. 2007].
Steps:
1. Spend at least 60 minutes preparing each lesson.
2. Rehearse the model script with your co-facilitator.
3. Split roles: one leads and one charts or manages the group.
4. Use an assistant for audio-visual, charting or co-acting if available.
5. Afterwards, debrief against the programme's fidelity tool.
Watch for: ad-libbing away from the script. Paraphrasing for literacy is responsivity; dropping components is drift [synthesis]. The T4C 5.0 Fidelity Tool exists but is not drawn on here [uncertain].

B. Cognitive self-change (cognitive restructuring)

B1. Teaching "thinking controls behaviour"

Purpose / when: the start of the cognitive block (T4C Lesson 6). It gives the rationale for everything that follows [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; Multnomah CSC slides].
Steps:
1. Present the idea that thoughts and feelings drive actions.
2. Show that any situation can be seen in more than one way, for example by having members interpret the same ambiguous scenario differently.
3. Frame learning to control your thinking as gaining power over your own life.
Example language (illustrative): "Two people get bumped in a queue. One laughs it off, one throws a punch. Same bump. What's different?"
Watch for: members hearing "your thinking is wrong" instead of "your thinking is yours to control". Working: members begin explaining others' behaviour by their thinking [synthesis].

B2. Thinking report

Purpose / when: the core tool of cognitive self-change. Used as homework and presented in group from T4C Lessons 6–10 onward, and in aftercare [source: Multnomah CSC slides].
Steps: the member writes four parts about one specific event.
1. Situation: facts only (who was there, what was said and done), with no interpretation.
2. Thoughts: every thought they remember, in the exact words they had in their head.
3. Feelings: the emotions and/or bodily sensations they remember, in their own words.
4. Attitudes and beliefs: the general rules, values, principles or opinions about types of people or situations that they brought to the event.
They then present it to the group, and the facilitator and group check it for objectivity.
Example language (illustrative): "Read me just the situation, like a camera saw it. 'He disrespected me' is a thought. What did he actually say?"
Watch for: the situation part being contaminated with blame or excuses; thoughts reported as cleaned-up summaries; feelings reported as thoughts ("I felt he was lying"). Working: reports become concrete, first-person and non-defensive [synthesis].

B3. Objectivity coaching

Purpose / when: whenever a thinking report is presented [source: Multnomah CSC slides].
Steps:
1. Instruct the presenter to report thoughts as they happened, not as they "should" have been.
2. Stop judging, blaming, excuse-making and second-guessing, both by the presenter and by the group.
3. Restate the purpose: the report is information about your mind in that moment.
Example language (illustrative): "We're not grading the thoughts yet. Just get them on paper the way they really went through your head."
Watch for: group members piling on. Redirect them with the "respect what is shared" norm [synthesis].

B4. Cognitive self-change step 1: Pay attention to our thinking

Purpose / when: T4C Lesson 7. The first skill is to notice the thoughts, feelings, attitudes and beliefs linked to your actions [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; Multnomah CSC slides].
Steps:
1. Assign a thinking report on a time the member broke a rule or hurt someone physically or emotionally.
2. In group, have them present it.
3. Help them retrieve more thoughts by slowing the event down moment by moment.
Example language (illustrative): "Take me to the second before you stood up. What was the very last thing you said to yourself?"
Watch for: "I wasn't thinking anything". Treat this as a skill gap, not defiance, and slow the event down further [synthesis].

B5. Cognitive self-change step 2: Recognise risk

Purpose / when: T4C Lesson 8. It links specific thinking to the risky action [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; Multnomah CSC slides].
Steps:
1. The member writes another report on a recent or past incident.
2. They answer three questions: Did my thoughts, feelings, attitudes and beliefs lead me to act as I did? Which of them mattered most? How did they lead to that action?
3. They circle one key thought, one feeling and one attitude or belief that drove the behaviour.
Example language (illustrative): "Of everything on your page, which one thought, if you hadn't had it, would have changed what you did?"
Watch for: members circling a socially acceptable item rather than the true driver. Ask the group whether it fits [synthesis].

B6. Cognitive self-change step 3: Use new thinking

Purpose / when: T4C Lesson 9 [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; Multnomah CSC slides].
Steps:
1. For the circled risk thinking, the member generates new thinking that would lead to different consequences.
2. They check two tests: would it lead somewhere different, and would I feel okay about myself thinking this way?
3. They rehearse the new thought in a tryout of the original situation.
4. Between sessions, they watch for tension, stress or conflict, write a report on each one, and circle the risk items.
Example language (illustrative): "'He's trying to make me look stupid' led to the fight. What could you say to yourself that's still true for you, but doesn't end with you back in custody?"
Watch for: new thinking that is just a slogan ("I'll be good"), or one the member does not believe. The second test exists to catch this. Working: in later reports the member spots the risk thinking before acting [synthesis].

B7. Thinking check-in

Purpose / when: T4C Lesson 10, and then as a recurring routine. A member brings a current situation and runs all three steps aloud [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; T4C 5.0 Introductory Information on aftercare].
Steps:
1. The member briefly describes a recent or current situation.
2. They give the thinking report parts orally.
3. They name the risk thinking and state the new thinking.
4. The group gives feedback.
Uncertain: the exact structure of the Lesson 10 check-in in the manual is not drawn on here. The steps above are inferred from the cognitive self-change sequence [uncertain].

C. Social skills training

C1. The skill-teaching cycle: model, tryout, feedback, practice work

Purpose / when: how every social skill (and every problem-solving step) is taught. Ross & Fabiano's review of effective programmes identified modelling, behavioural rehearsal and feedback, followed by transfer strategies such as overlearning and practising in varied settings. T4C makes this a fixed routine of scripted model, tryouts and feedback [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 32–36, 51–53; T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Steps:
1. Display the skill's steps.
2. Two facilitators act out the lesson's model script, for example a staff member and a participant in a realistic conflict. They think the steps aloud, so members can see the cognitive steps as well as the behaviour.
3. Ask members where they would need the skill. Each member picks a real upcoming or recent situation.
4. The member sets the scene and chooses a co-actor.
5. The member runs the tryout, following the steps, while observers are each assigned a step to watch.
6. Feedback: observers report whether each step was done; the co-actor says how it felt to be on the receiving end; facilitators add specific comments; the member reflects last.
7. Assign practice work: use the skill in the named situation before the next session and report back.
The order of feedback in step 6 follows common Skillstreaming-style practice. It was not verified in the T4C manual [uncertain].
Example language (illustrative): "Marcus, you're on step 2, so watch whether he actually asks a question or just argues. Darren, after the tryout tell us how it felt to be talked to that way."
Watch for: tryouts on hypothetical or trivial situations (ask for one that is real and likely); laughing and acting badly on purpose (refer back to the norms, then re-run); feedback that is only praise or only criticism. Working: members start using the step names spontaneously, and practice-work reports describe real uses of the skill [synthesis].

C2. Core T4C social skills

Purpose / when: T4C teaches nine core skills (Lessons 2–5 and 11–15). Each is taught using the cycle in C1 [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Steps: the manual's step lists for each skill are [uncertain]. The working breakdowns below are [synthesis] and should be replaced with the manual's own steps when delivering the programme. They give the purpose and observable components of each skill.
- Active Listening (L2): face the speaker, pay attention, show you are listening, then reflect back what you heard.
- Asking Questions (L3): decide what you need to know and whom to ask, choose a good time, ask clearly, then listen to the answer.
- Giving Feedback (L4): describe the specific behaviour, say its effect on you, and leave room for their reply.
- Knowing Your Feelings (L5): notice body signals, name the feeling, and link it to the situation. This prepares the ground for the "feelings" part of the thinking report.
- Understanding the Feelings of Others (L11): watch the other person's words and body language, name what they may be feeling, and check whether you have it right.
- Responding to the Feelings of Others (L12): decide whether and how to respond, then show concern or support in a way that fits the person.
- Responding to an Accusation (L13): stay calm, find out exactly what is being claimed, think about whether it is fair, then respond (by explaining, apologising or correcting) without escalating.
- Responding to Anger (L14): listen without interrupting, acknowledge the anger, stay calm, and then deal with the issue or leave safely.
- Negotiating (L15): state your position, ask for and listen to theirs, look for a compromise, and propose it.
Example language (illustrative, Responding to an Accusation): "Okay, so you're saying I took your phone card. Tell me what makes you think that."
Watch for: members treating skills as "being soft". Show how each skill gets them what they actually want, such as avoiding a fight, getting information or getting a fair deal. Working: officers or family report fewer escalations, and members describe using the skill in practice work [synthesis].

C3. Aftercare social skills

Purpose: T4C aftercare can add up to 41 further social skills beyond the core nine, taught through tryouts and feedback either in group or one-to-one [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information]. The list of these skills is [uncertain].

D. Problem solving and self-regulation

D1. T4C problem-solving method

Purpose / when: Lessons 16–24. A structured process for stressful real-life conflicts, built on the social and cognitive skills already learned [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list; T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Steps (stages as named in the lesson titles; the detail is [synthesis]):
1. Stop and think (L17): notice the warning signs of a problem situation, such as body cues or risk thinking, and pause before acting. This draws on the cognitive self-change skills.
2. State the problem (L18): describe the problem objectively (who, what, where), without blame, as a situation in which something is getting in the way of what you want.
3. Set a goal and gather information (L19): state a realistic goal for yourself, then gather facts, the other person's view, and your own thoughts and feelings. This uses Active Listening and Asking Questions.
4. Practice (L20): integrated tryouts of steps 1–3 on a member's real problem.
5. Think of choices and outcomes (L21): generate several options, then predict the likely outcome of each for you and for others.
6. Make a plan (L22): choose the option most likely to reach the goal and plan what to do and say, using the relevant social skill.
7. Do and evaluate (L23): carry out the plan, then review whether it worked and what to change.
8. Application (L24): run the whole process on a significant personal problem.
Example language (illustrative): "Before we fix anything, state the problem in a way your PO and your cellmate would both agree with."
Watch for: goals stated as controlling other people ("get him to back off"), and "choices" that are all variations of the same aggressive option. Working: members produce three or more distinct options and predict consequences for others as well as themselves [synthesis].

D2. Five-stage problem-solving training (R&R lineage)

Purpose / when: the problem-solving model Ross & Fabiano drew on (D'Zurilla & Goldfried). It targets impulsive, "react, don't think" responding and poor means-ends reasoning [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 3, 36–41].
Steps:
1. General orientation: accept that problems are a normal part of life and can be solved, and learn to recognise when one is happening.
2. Problem definition: describe it in concrete terms.
3. Generating alternatives: brainstorm with the rules of deferring judgement and aiming for quantity.
4. Decision-making: weigh the likely consequences and choose.
5. Verification: act, observe the result and compare it with the goal. If it falls short, loop back, as in the test-operate-test-exit (TOTE) loop.
Example language (illustrative): "For the next two minutes no idea is a bad idea. We're going for quantity. We'll judge them afterwards."
Watch for: judging ideas during brainstorming, and skipping verification. Working: members spontaneously generate alternatives when a problem comes up in group [synthesis].

D3. Self-instructional training (thinking aloud)

Purpose / when: for impulsive participants who fail to "stop and think". They learn to guide their behaviour with self-talk [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 54–55].
Steps:
1. The facilitator models a task while talking the problem-solving steps aloud.
2. The member does the task while the facilitator talks it through.
3. The member does it while talking aloud.
4. The member does it while whispering.
5. The member does it with silent self-talk.
This fading sequence follows the standard Meichenbaum-style procedure. The source names thinking aloud but the fading detail was not confirmed in it [uncertain].
Example language (illustrative): "Say it out loud as you go: 'What's the problem? What are my choices? What happens if…?'"
Watch for: self-talk said with mockery. Working: the member uses brief self-statements under provocation in role play [synthesis].

D4. Self-management: self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement

Purpose / when: to build self-determination in participants who see themselves as victims of circumstance or controlled by events (external locus of control) [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 17–18, 55–56].
Steps:
1. Agree a target behaviour, for example walking away from provocation.
2. The member records each occurrence, with the circumstances.
3. The member rates their own performance against the goal.
4. The member gives themselves a planned reward or acknowledgement when they meet it.
Example language (illustrative): "You decide what counts as a win this week, and you keep the score."
Watch for: records filled in just before group. Ask for one specific instance in detail [synthesis].

D5. Imagery rehearsal of alternatives

Purpose / when: for considering alternatives and testing your likely reactions before acting in a high-risk situation [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 56–58].
Steps:
1. Ask the member to picture the coming situation in detail.
2. Have them imagine carrying out the chosen option, and notice their thoughts, feelings and other people's responses.
3. Adjust the plan, then rehearse it again in imagery or role play.
Example language (illustrative): "Close your eyes if that's okay. You're walking into the visit room and she brings up the money. Run your plan. What happens in your body?"
Watch for: distress with trauma-related imagery. Offer an eyes-open option and keep the focus on the near-future situation [synthesis].

E. Reasoning and Rehabilitation modules

R&R's eight module areas are confirmed [source: Fogg 1992; Sánchez-SanSegundo et al. 2020]. The session-level content of the R&R manual (Ross, Fabiano & Ross 1986) and of R&R2 (Ross & Hilborn) is not drawn on here. Ross & Fabiano's 1983 report lists lateral thinking, critical thinking, values education and moral development among its techniques, but their detail is not drawn on here. Entries E1–E6 therefore give the module's purpose from the sources and a generic delivery outline marked [synthesis]. Use the licensed manual for the actual exercises. Problem solving and social skills are covered in D2 and C1.

E1. Negotiation skills

Purpose: to resolve conflicts by reaching agreement instead of using force or giving in. Taught explicitly in the cognitive-model programmes and in behavioural contracting [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 19–22; Fogg 1992].
Steps [synthesis]: teach the stages (state your position, hear theirs, look for common ground, propose, agree); model them; run tryouts on members' real disputes; give feedback.
Example language (illustrative): "What does he need to walk away with for this to work for him too?"
Watch for: "negotiation" that is really disguised threat.

E2. Emotion management

Purpose: to manage anger and other emotions that override thinking [source: Fogg 1992]. The module's techniques are [uncertain].
Steps [synthesis]: identify body cues and triggers; use a pause-and-calm strategy; apply problem solving once calm; rehearse in role play.

E3. Creative (lateral) thinking

Purpose: to counter rigid, one-option thinking by practising the generation of many alternative ideas [source: Fogg 1992; Ross & Fabiano 1983 table of contents, p. 58ff].
Steps [synthesis]: run puzzles and "how many uses" style exercises with no-judgement rules, then move the same skill onto members' interpersonal problems.
Watch for: members seeing the exercises as childish. Make the link to their real problems explicit [synthesis].

E4. Critical reasoning

Purpose: to evaluate claims and arguments, including one's own excuses and others' attempts at manipulation [source: Fogg 1992]. Content unknown [uncertain].
Steps [synthesis]: present an argument or advert, have members identify the claim and the evidence, then spot the flaws, then apply the same scrutiny to their own justifications.

E5. Values enhancement

Purpose: to develop prosocial values and perspective-taking, which offsets egocentric reasoning [source: Fogg 1992; Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 3, 10, 32].
Steps [synthesis]: present a moral dilemma; members choose a position and give reasons; facilitators use questions to raise the level of reasoning and bring in other people's perspectives. The use of dilemma discussion is consistent with R&R2's description of facilitated discussion but was not verified in the manual [uncertain].
Example language (illustrative): "You've told us what you'd do. Now argue it from the shopkeeper's side."

E6. Cognitive exercises and games

Purpose: to practise thinking skills in low-stakes, engaging formats. R&R2 is described as delivered through games, practical skill work and facilitated discussion [source: Fogg 1992; Sánchez-SanSegundo et al. 2020].
Steps: follow the manual. The specific exercises are [uncertain].

F. MRT step work

MRT's workbook exercises are copyrighted. They are described here by name and purpose only, from a CCI advanced trainer's practice notes and a published programme description [source: McKeen, MRT mishaps; Harrell et al. 2022]. Steps 4 and 8–16 are not described in the sources [uncertain].

F1. Step presentation and readiness check (all steps)

Purpose: members advance only by presenting completed work in group [source: McKeen].
Steps:
1. Before presenting, the member states from memory their step, its topic and its place on the Freedom Ladder. If they cannot, they do not present that session.
2. The facilitator checks every exercise for completeness.
3. The member presents.
4. The step is passed or returned under consistent rules.
5. If returned, redo rules apply.
Example language (illustrative): "Before you start, tell the group: which step, what it's about, and where it sits on the Ladder."
Watch for: facilitators passing incomplete work to keep the group moving.

F2. Step 1: Pyramid and honesty testimony

Purpose: honesty and trust, the "disloyalty" stage [source: McKeen; Harrell et al. 2022].
Steps:
1. The member draws a pyramid depicting their own dishonest or harmful behaviour. Words may only enhance the drawings, and thought bubbles are allowed.
2. They attempt Step 1 within the first three groups.
3. Once the pyramid passes, they give a standing testimony in the same session.
4. They have three testimony attempts, after which the work goes to programme staff.
5. If prompting of one missed element is allowed, it must be allowed consistently across Steps 1 and 2.
6. On a redo, they draw afresh (no photocopies), every picture involves dishonesty or victim statements, and the testimony addresses their lack of honesty.
Watch for: drawings that minimise or omit harm to others.

F3. Step 2: Life Wheel, Shield and Life Mask, trust testimony

Purpose: trust [source: McKeen].
Steps:
1. The member completes the Life Wheel. Item 3 must be a current problem that can be solved within one week, not an ongoing process like quitting smoking.
2. They complete the Shield and Life Mask.
3. They give a testimony about trust, including whom they failed to trust.
4. On a redo, both drawings are redone. Life Wheel items 1–2 must relate to why the step is being repeated, and item 3 must be a new one-week problem.

F4. Step 3: Violations, Worries/Wants/Needs, Acceptance Guidelines

Purpose: acceptance, the "opposition" stage [source: McKeen; Harrell et al. 2022].
Steps:
1. The member identifies their violations.
2. They complete Worries, Wants and Needs, and Acceptance Guidelines.
3. On a redo, they redo all three Worries/Wants/Needs, relate them to the reason for return, share two in group, and redo the Acceptance Guidelines.

F5. Bringing violations to group

Purpose: ongoing accountability across all steps [source: McKeen].
Steps:
1. Define major and minor rules in advance.
2. Require members to raise their own violations in group, for example curfew or drug-screen violations, arguing, dishonesty, attitude, or missed preparation.
3. Respond according to the pre-set level of the rule.
Watch for: applying so many rules that nobody progresses.

F6. Step 5: Circle of Relationships and repair plans

Purpose: healing damaged relationships, the "injury" stage [source: McKeen; Harrell et al. 2022].
Steps:
1. The member maps nine relationship positions. "Self" is not allowed in position 1; pets may appear in 1 or 7.
2. For each important relationship, they record how it was damaged, the goal, how to repair it, the first repair action, and the date they will start that action (not the date they will finish).
3. The #3 problem must be current and solvable within a week.

F7. Step 6: How I Helped Others, and one-to-one discussions

Purpose: receiving and giving help [source: McKeen; Harrell et al. 2022].
Steps:
1. The member documents ways they have helped others, filling every numbered line.
2. They hold one-to-one discussions with another person in which both share background, family, school, work and goals. These are two-way conversations, not interviews.
3. They write them up in full sentences, and the other person signs and dates the record.

F8. Step 7: 1, 5 and 10 Years to Live

Purpose: long-term goals and identity, the "non-existence" stage [source: McKeen; Harrell et al. 2022].
Steps: the member sets specific, measurable, achievable and prosocial goals for one, five and ten years. Bucket-list, illegal or antisocial goals do not pass.
Example language (illustrative): "'Travel the world' won't pass. What's one thing you could actually have done a year from now?"

G. Generalisation and aftercare

G1. Practice work (homework) and review

Purpose: transfer skills into daily life. Homework and between-session experiments are a standard element [source: Clark 2011; T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Steps:
1. Assign a specific situation and skill at the end of each lesson.
2. At the next session, each member reports what happened, which steps they used and the outcome.
3. Give praise for attempts and problem-solve any barriers.
In T4C 5.0, practice work may also be done through online dosage modules.
Watch for: practice work that is never reviewed. When it isn't reviewed, completion stops [synthesis].

G2. Aftercare Program Check-In (T4C)

Purpose: maintenance after graduation. Groups are open-ended, at least weekly and up to three times a week [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Steps:
1. The member names a current situation or problem.
2. They identify which T4C element (a cognitive self-change step, a social skill or problem solving) would reduce risk or lead to a prosocial outcome.
3. They refine it through a tryout and feedback, in group or one-to-one.
Example language (illustrative): "What's the situation this week, and which tool from the course fits it?"

5. Handling problems

The sources give little troubleshooting guidance. The T4C introductory page gives none beyond non-coercive management and the norms, and the MRT facilitator handbook is reported not to specify discipline methods [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information; Harrell et al. 2022]. Items without a source tag are my own synthesis [synthesis].

Mandated, low-motivation members

Readiness matters, so assess it and actively build engagement [source: Clark 2011].
Frame the course as skills that get the member what they want (fewer violations, more control), not as moral correction. Give them choice inside the structure: their own situations for tryouts, and their own goals.
Avoid coercion so that members credit change to themselves [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, p. 27].
Illustrative language: "You didn't choose to be here. What would make these hours worth something to you?"

Hostility, power struggles, scapegoating

In MRT's account of group development, a conflict and power-struggle stage is expected. Facilitators are told to enforce rules, expect resentment and prevent scapegoating [source: Harrell et al. 2022, citing Little & Robinson 2009].
Respond by restating the norm, not by debating it. Challenge the reasoning with questions, not put-downs [source: Ross & Fabiano 1983, pp. 31–32].
Use the member's own behaviour in the room as a live thinking report: "What were you saying to yourself just before you said that?"
If aggression is verbal or physical, stop the activity, apply the no-aggression norm, and follow agency safety procedure. Never run a tryout that re-enacts violence physically.

"I wasn't thinking anything" / denial / minimisation in thinking reports

Treat this as a skill gap. Slow the event down, ask for literal self-talk, and use the group to suggest thoughts the member can accept or reject.
Keep objectivity: no one, the facilitator included, labels the thoughts until step 2 [source: Multnomah CSC slides, on objectivity].
In MRT, require that redo testimony addresses dishonesty directly [source: McKeen].

Practice-work non-completion

Review practice work every session without exception. Making the report-back routine and public (A3) is the main lever.
Problem-solve barriers. For low literacy, allow oral reports or a scribe; T4C advises considering reading assistance [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Shrink the task to one situation and one skill.
Under T4C's rule, do not move to a new lesson until members have practised [source: T4C 5.0 lesson list].
In MRT, do not let anyone present without completed exercises [source: McKeen].

Stuck members (MRT step repeated many times; T4C member who can't do a tryout)

MRT: after three failed testimony attempts, the work goes to programme staff [source: McKeen]. Hold an individual session to identify the barrier, such as literacy, cognition, shame or misunderstanding the step's requirement.
Check rules are applied consistently. Too many undifferentiated rules mean participants do not progress [source: McKeen].
T4C: break the skill into one step at a time; let the member be the co-actor first; use a less charged situation.

Cognitive impairment, ADHD, mental illness

Adapted versions exist (R&R2 for youth and for mentally disordered offenders) [source: Sánchez-SanSegundo et al. 2020; version details not described].
Within a standard group: use visual step cards, shorter segments, more repetition (overlearning), and a co-facilitator check-in during breaks.
Refer for assessment if the member cannot hold the steps across sessions despite support.

Overwhelm, trauma reactions

T4C discourages mixed-gender groups partly because of trauma triggers [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information]. MRT keeps the focus on exercises rather than personal histories [source: Harrell et al. 2022].
If a thinking report or tryout triggers trauma: stop, ground the member, offer to choose a different situation, and follow up one-to-one. Do not role-play abuse scenarios. Refer for trauma-focused treatment alongside the group, not instead of it.

Suicide or self-harm disclosures

These programmes are not designed to manage suicide risk.
Stop the exercise and acknowledge the disclosure briefly in group. Speak with the member privately the same day, and carry out or arrange a standard risk assessment under agency protocol (custody suicide-prevention procedures where they apply).
Lethal-means counselling, in the community: safe storage and removal of means.
Inform the case manager within the confidentiality limits stated in Lesson 1.

Disclosure of new offences or risk to others

Apply the limits of confidentiality disclosed at intake and in Lesson 1 [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information]. Follow agency reporting duties.
Tell the member what you will do. Then use the event as a thinking report only if it is safe to do so.

Ruptures with the facilitator (seen as "the system")

Name the dual role honestly. Separate the teaching role from supervision decisions where possible.
Repair by acknowledging specific mistakes, for example inconsistent rule-enforcement.
Model the skills yourself, such as responding to an accusation non-defensively. This is prosocial modelling in action [source: Clark 2011].

Drift and fidelity loss (facilitator problem)

This is the main threat to outcomes [source: Lipsey et al. 2007].
Prepare for 60+ minutes per lesson; follow the script; debrief with the co-facilitator after every session; use the programme's fidelity tool and supervision [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].
Common MRT drift: mixing books or programmes in one group; inconsistent prompting; passing incomplete work [source: McKeen].

Attendance gaps and custody disruptions

Dose matters [source: Clark 2011].
Offer make-up sessions or online dosage modules where available [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information]. Plan transfers so members can finish, or join aftercare.
Do not admit late joiners to closed T4C groups after Lesson 4 [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].

Group composition problems

Mixed risk levels: keep groups to medium and high risk.
Gang or co-defendant conflicts: screen before the group starts.
People treated for sexual offences: run separate groups [source: McKeen].
Mixed gender: avoid [source: T4C 5.0 Introductory Information].

MRT-specific: shame in public testimony

Standing testimony about dishonesty can produce shame and withdrawal [synthesis].
Prepare members individually beforehand. Keep group feedback on whether the content requirements were met, not on the person. Make sure the norms forbid ridicule.

Sources

Sources: