Applied kinesiology (Goodheart)

1. Introduction

Version followed: applied kinesiology (AK) as described by the International College of Applied Kinesiology (ICAK-USA) and by its founder and research director in the peer-reviewed literature (Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007), distinguished from lay "specialised" or "energy" kinesiology (Touch for Health and its descendants) as the Australian NHMRC/Cochrane Australia review distinguishes them. The psychotherapist works alongside AK; the psychotherapist never performs, sells, prescribes or recommends AK testing or the treatments chosen with it. This entry also serves 178 (applied-kinesiology testing) and the Domain X cross-reference 061.

What it is, as its organisations describe it. ICAK traces AK to 1964, when the chiropractor George J. Goodheart Jr. observed that postural distortion was usually associated with muscles that "test weak", and that applying an appropriate therapy made those muscles test strong and changed the posture. Goodheart is described as using "the body itself as a diagnostic tool" and as drawing on biomedicine, osteopathy, acupuncture, dentistry, nutrition and biochemistry to correlate many examination and treatment procedures into one method [source: ICAK-USA, About ICAK-USA]. The core tool is manual muscle testing (MMT): the practitioner presses against a limb the patient holds in a set position and judges whether the muscle holds ("strong") or suddenly gives way ("weak") [source: Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007]. AK adds provocative tests, "challenge" and "therapy localization", to MMT, and uses changes in muscle response as a means to diagnose "structural, chemical, and mental dysfunctions", including, in AK's account, pre- or subclinical organic disease [source: Haas, Cooperstein & Peterson 2007].

Its core idea of how change happens (attributed). In AK's own model, muscle weakness reflects nervous-system dysfunction linked to particular structures, organs, nutrients or emotional factors; the practitioner treats the indicated factor and confirms success when the muscle tests strong again. Proponents frame MMT as testing the nervous system's ability to adapt a muscle to changing pressure, not raw strength, and link findings to five systems: nervous, lymphatic, blood vascular, cerebrospinal-fluid flow and the acupuncture meridians [source: Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007]. The meridian and organ-muscle links are AK's own concepts and are described here as the method holds them.

Who practises it. ICAK was founded in 1976 by doctors who had been teaching AK, with chapters later in Australia, Canada and Europe (Germany, Italy, the UK, Scandinavia and Benelux) [source: ICAK-USA]. AK is used mainly by chiropractors; proponents note MMT is also used by physical therapists and neurologists [source: Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007]. Other complementary practitioners and some supplement distributors, including multi-level marketers, also use muscle testing [uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Touch for Health emerged in the 1970s as a simplified form of AK for self-use outside the health professions, and "specialised kinesiology" (e.g. Professional Kinesiology Practice, Three in One, Kinergetics) grew from it; these lay forms use muscle testing to select remedies, acupressure, flower remedies, supplements and techniques such as EFT and EMDR, and may offer remote "surrogate" testing [source: Cochrane Australia/NHMRC 2024].

What a client experiences (as described). A hands-on examination in which the practitioner positions a limb, stabilises the body and applies brief pressure while the client resists; the client may be asked to touch a body area (therapy localization), to have a joint or area pressed or stretched (challenge), or to taste or smell a substance before re-testing [source: Haas et al. 2007; nutrient taste/smell testing: uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Treatments chosen may include joint manipulation, soft-tissue, cranial and meridian work, clinical nutrition and dietary counselling [uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Lay kinesiology sessions are reported as typically 30 to 90 minutes [source: Cochrane Australia/NHMRC 2024]. All of this involves touch by the practitioner; the client is entitled to explicit consent before and during, to stop at any time, and to touch that is never sexual [synthesis].

Regulation and status, one line each.

USA: AK is not a licensed profession in itself; it is practised mainly within state-licensed chiropractic, and ICAK membership is professional, not a licence [source: ICAK-USA; state-by-state scope: uncertain: not verified].
UK: kinesiology practice is not statutorily regulated; advertisers may not make diagnosis or treatment claims without robust evidence (CAP Code rule 12.1) or discourage essential treatment (rule 12.2) [source: ASA/CAP 2021]. NICE advises against kinesiology ("muscle testing") for diagnosing food allergy in children [source: NICE 2011].
Australia: AK practitioners are described as needing a relevant university health qualification; lay kinesiology is not regulated under the Health Practitioner Regulation National Law, and kinesiology has been excluded from private-health-insurance rebates since 1 April 2019 [source: Cochrane Australia/NHMRC 2024; Australian Department of Health].
Denmark: the Danish Chiropractic Association ruled in 1998 that AK is not chiropractic care [uncertain: secondary, unverified].
Evidence status: controlled studies found AK no better than random guessing for nutrient status (Kenney et al. 1988), and a chiropractic review concluded the evidence does not support MMT for diagnosing organic disease (Haas et al. 2007); proponents dispute this (Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007).

2. Framework

AK is a diagnostic and treatment-selection system, not a psychotherapy. This section gives (a) the AK examination as its proponents describe it, so the therapist understands what the client went through, and (b) the psychotherapist's own phased work alongside it.

(a) The AK examination as described. [source: Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007; Haas et al. 2007]

History and standard examination: ICAK's position, as proponents state it, is that MMT should be done by an examiner trained in the anatomy, physiology and neurology of muscle function; whether ICAK requires AK to be combined with standard diagnosis is described in secondary sources [uncertain: secondary, unverified].
Muscle testing: the muscle is placed so it is the prime mover, the region is stabilised, timing, pressure and position are kept consistent, contacts are non-painful, and the examiner is to avoid preconceived ideas about the result. In the "break test" form, the patient contracts and the examiner adds a brief extra force; holding is graded "strong", giving way "weak". AK grades only as "stronger" or "weaker".
Provocative testing: challenge (e.g. pressure applied to a spinal joint during testing) and therapy localization (the patient's hand on a skin area, such as a named "point", while another muscle is tested) [source: Haas et al. 2007].
Chemical testing: substances tested for whether they restore a weak muscle (e.g. a pancreatic-extract challenge in a 1982 study described by Haas et al.); food-intolerance testing has been studied in children [source: Haas et al. 2007].
Treatment and re-test: the indicated therapy is applied and the muscle re-tested; proponents expect a quick shift from weak to strong when the therapy is right [source: Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007].
Session number and course length: not specified in the sources [uncertain: not verified].

(b) The psychotherapist's work alongside AK [synthesis]

Phase 1, ask and record: routine non-judgemental enquiry at intake and when new symptoms, diets or products appear. Move on once use, purpose, practitioner type, costs and decisions based on test results are recorded.
Phase 2, understand: meaning, hopes, expectations and the client's explanatory model. Move on when the client can say what the testing gives them and what decisions hang on it.
Phase 3, decide and coordinate: informed, values-based decisions; with consent, liaison with the GP, paediatrician, dietitian or pharmacist. Move on when medical care, diet and medicines are known to the relevant professional.
Phase 4, monitor risk: revisit at each change (new eliminations, new products, stopped care, children involved, spending). This runs through the whole therapy.
Format: woven into ordinary sessions, usually one focused session plus brief check-ins; longer work when AK use is tied to health anxiety, restrictive eating or a high-control group (see Domain II).

3. Guiding principles

Principles AK proponents state [source: Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007; ICAK-USA]

Examiner competence in anatomy, physiology and neurology: AK is presented as a skilled examination done by a trained clinician; for the therapist, this means a lay seller doing "muscle testing" is not doing what ICAK describes.
Standardised, non-painful testing and avoidance of preconceived impressions: proponents themselves name examiner expectation as a risk; the therapist can use this shared language when a client wonders whether results were suggested.
The body as a diagnostic tool: the client may experience the test as their body "speaking"; respect the experience while separating it from medical diagnosis.
Integration of many disciplines: AK borrows from chiropractic, osteopathy, acupuncture, nutrition and dentistry; ask which of these the client has actually received.

Principles for the psychotherapist's stance [synthesis unless cited]

Curiosity without judgement: ask as routinely as about sleep or alcohol; a shamed client stops telling you.
Never perform, sell, prescribe or recommend: do not muscle-test a client, refer to an AK practitioner, or sell products; this also avoids a conflict of interest [source: APA Ethics Code 3.06].
Stay within competence: do not interpret AK findings or give opinions on supplements, foods or medicines; route those to the prescriber, pharmacist or dietitian [source: APA Ethics Code 2.01].
Ground judgements in established knowledge: if asked, give the evidence status plainly and briefly, then return to the client's values [source: APA Ethics Code 2.04].
Autonomy with safety: adults may choose complementary care; the therapist's job is informed choice, not persuasion, with a firm line where a child, pregnancy, an eating disorder or abandoned medical care is involved.
Attribute, do not adjudicate: describe meridian, organ-muscle and "energy" ideas as AK holds them, neither as fact nor with ridicule.
Collaborate with consent: liaise with other professionals when it serves the client [source: APA Ethics Code 3.09; disclosures 4.05].
Touch belongs to the client: if the client describes hands-on testing, check that it was consented to, could be stopped, and was never sexual; respond to any report of improper touch as a safeguarding and professional-conduct matter.

4. Intervention inventory

All interventions below are the psychotherapist's own work alongside AK. None involves performing muscle testing. Steps and language are [synthesis] unless a source is named; example wording is illustrative.

4.1 Routine, non-judgemental enquiry and recording

Purpose: find out whether the client uses AK or any "muscle testing" (chiropractic AK, Touch for Health, specialised kinesiology, a supplement seller's test, remote "surrogate" testing), and what it is used to decide. Use at intake, at reviews, and whenever new diets, supplements, symptoms or diagnoses appear.
Steps: (1) Ask as part of a standard health question set, alongside medicines and other practitioners. (2) Use the client's own term ("kinesiology", "muscle testing", "the arm test"). (3) Clarify who does it: a licensed chiropractor or other registered clinician, or a lay practitioner or product seller. (4) Ask what the testing has been used for: pain or posture, "intolerances" and food eliminations, supplement choice, emotional "issues", children or other family members. (5) Ask about cost, frequency and any products bought. (6) Record neutrally: practitioner type, purpose, decisions taken on the results, and whether the GP knows.
Example language (illustrative): "Lots of people I see use other kinds of care alongside their doctor. Do you see anyone else for your health, such as a chiropractor, kinesiologist or nutrition practitioner?" / "When they do the muscle test, what is it helping you decide?"
Watch for: hesitation or apology (signals expected judgement); test results being treated as diagnoses ("I tested intolerant to wheat"); children being tested; testing done remotely or through another person. It is working when the client volunteers updates without being asked.

4.2 Exploring the experience of being tested

Purpose: understand what the hands-on test felt like and why it is persuasive for this client, without debating it. Use once AK use is known and seems important to the client.
Steps: (1) Invite a description of a session in sequence: what the practitioner did, where they touched, what the client was asked to hold, taste or touch. (2) Ask what it felt like when a muscle "went weak" or "stayed strong". (3) Reflect the meaning the client gives it ("my body knows"). (4) Check consent to touch: was it explained, could the client say stop, was any touch uncomfortable or in intimate areas without clear clinical explanation. (5) Note, without challenge, that AK's own proponents list avoiding the examiner's preconceived ideas as part of a proper test [source: Cuthbert & Goodheart 2007], which can open a shared, non-adversarial conversation about suggestion if the client wishes.
Example language (illustrative): "Talk me through what happens in a session, step by step." / "When your arm gave way, what did that tell you?" / "Did you feel able to say if anything was uncomfortable?"
Watch for: a sense of being "read" by the practitioner that leaves the client dependent on the test for everyday choices; any report of non-consensual or sexual touch (respond as in 4.9). Working: the client describes the experience freely and can hold both the felt experience and questions about it.

4.3 Meaning, hopes, expectations and explanatory model

Purpose: understand what draws the client to AK: control over unexplained symptoms, hope, being listened to and touched, distrust of medicine after poor experiences, identity, family or community ties. Use when AK shapes significant health, diet or spending decisions.
Steps: (1) Ask what led them to AK and what they hoped for. (2) Elicit their model of their problem ("What do you think is going on in your body?"). (3) Ask what medical care has felt like by comparison. (4) Identify which needs AK meets (time, touch, certainty, a named cause). (5) Ask what would tell them it is or is not helping, and what they would do then. (6) Link meanings to therapy goals, e.g. tolerating uncertainty, self-advocacy with doctors.
Example language (illustrative): "What does the kinesiologist give you that you haven't found elsewhere?" / "If this works the way you hope, what changes for you?" / "How would you know if it wasn't helping?"
Watch for: expectations of cure for a medical condition; a rigid single-cause model ("everything is intolerances"); intense distrust of all medical input. Working: the client can name their needs and see other ways to meet some of them.

4.4 Supporting informed, values-based decisions

Purpose: help the client make decisions based on AK results (diet changes, supplements, stopping or delaying tests or treatment) in line with their own values and with accurate information, without coercion. Use when a test result is driving a decision with health, cost or family consequences.
Steps: (1) Name the decision concretely. (2) Ask what the client already knows and wants to know. (3) If asked, give the evidence status in one or two neutral sentences (e.g. that controlled testing found AK no better than chance for nutrient status [source: Kenney et al. 1988], and that NICE advises against muscle testing to diagnose food allergy in children [source: NICE 2011]). (4) Lay out the options, including "both": continuing AK while also having medical assessment. (5) Explore values: safety, cost, autonomy, family relationships. (6) Suggest that questions about tests, foods and medicines go to the GP, dietitian or pharmacist. (7) Respect the decision and record it. No published decision aid specific to AK is cited here [uncertain: not verified].
Example language (illustrative): "It's your decision. Would it help to look at what each option would mean for you?" / "Some people keep seeing their kinesiologist and also get the allergy tests through their GP. How would that sit with you?"
Watch for: the therapist pushing an outcome (a rupture risk); decisions that remove medical care for a serious condition or affect a child (move to 4.6 and 4.7). Working: the client can state the trade-offs in their own words.

4.5 Coordination with the doctor, dietitian or pharmacist

Purpose: make sure professionals responsible for the client's physical health know about AK-guided diet changes, supplements or stopped treatment. Use whenever AK results have changed diet, supplements or medicines, or have delayed medical assessment.
Steps: (1) Explain why coordination helps the client. (2) Obtain explicit consent and agree what will be shared [source: APA Ethics Code 4.05, 3.09]. (3) Prefer the client telling the GP themselves; offer to help prepare a short list of what they are doing and taking. (4) If the client agrees, write or call factually: practitioner type, changes made, the client's concerns; no opinion on supplements or medicines. (5) Encourage a pharmacist check of all products alongside prescribed medicines. (6) Record consent and contact.
Example language (illustrative): "Would you be willing for your GP to know about the foods you've cut out? They can check nothing important is missing." / "A pharmacist can look at everything you take together. Would you take this list with you?"
Watch for: refusal driven by fear of being judged by doctors (return to 4.3); any change to prescribed medicines prompted by a test, which goes straight to the prescriber. Working: the GP or dietitian is aware and the client reports feeling supported, not policed.

4.6 Risk recognition: delayed care, restrictive eating, pregnancy, money and group pressure

Purpose: spot and respond to harms linked to decisions made on muscle-test results. Use throughout, and at once when any trigger below appears.
Steps: (1) Screen for stopped or delayed medical assessment or treatment, including medicines changed because of a test; route medicine questions to the prescriber. (2) Screen for expanding food eliminations: number of foods removed, weight change, fear around eating, rigid rules, social withdrawal around food; NICE warns that inaccurate alternative allergy diagnosis can lead to extensive restriction diets and malnutrition in children [source: NICE 2011]. Where restrictive or orthorexic patterns appear, assess for an eating disorder using your usual clinical tools and involve the GP. (3) In pregnancy, check that antenatal care and any dietary changes are known to the midwife or obstetrician. (4) Ask about spending, debt, repeated product purchases, recruitment into selling (multi-level marketing) or tiered courses. (5) Ask whether a practitioner or group discourages contact with doctors or with family who disagree. (6) Grade urgency: urgent medical review for red-flag symptoms or significant weight loss; same-week GP liaison for restriction or stopped treatment; ongoing monitoring otherwise. (7) Record risks, advice given and the client's response.
Example language (illustrative): "Since the testing, how many foods have you cut out? Has your weight or energy changed?" / "Has anyone suggested you don't need the treatment your doctor recommended?" / "How much has this cost you so far, and is that sustainable?"
Watch for: each visit producing new "intolerances"; secrecy from the GP; a practitioner advising against medical tests; pressure to sell products. Working: risks are named early, medical review happens, and the client keeps control of spending.

4.7 Children: consent, assent and safeguarding

Purpose: protect children who are muscle-tested, including by surrogate testing through a parent, and whose diet or care is changed as a result. Use whenever a client describes testing a child or acting for a child on AK results.
Steps: (1) Ask what the child was tested for, by whom, and what changed afterwards (foods removed, supplements, missed appointments, treatment stopped). (2) Ask whether the child's doctor knows. (3) Share, if helpful, that NICE advises against kinesiology for diagnosing food allergy in children and recommends NHS allergy assessment [source: NICE 2011]. (4) Encourage paediatric or dietetic review of any restricted diet. (5) Consider the child's assent and the parents' consent for any hands-on testing. (6) If a child is deprived of adequate nutrition or necessary medical care, follow your local safeguarding procedure, consult your safeguarding lead, and record decisions. Never name the child outside the clinical record.
Example language (illustrative): "What did the tests say about your daughter, and what have you changed since?" / "Has her doctor or a dietitian seen the list of foods she's avoiding?"
Watch for: growth or weight concerns, a child anxious about food, missed vaccinations or appointments, conflict between parents over the testing. Working: the child is medically reviewed and the parent remains engaged.

4.8 Health anxiety, somatic symptoms and perceived intolerances

Purpose: address the psychological drivers when AK use is part of health anxiety, persistent physical symptoms or idiopathic environmental intolerance (multiple "sensitivities"). Use when testing is sought repeatedly for reassurance or when the number of perceived intolerances keeps growing. Cross-reference Domain II for the full health-anxiety and somatic-symptom protocols.
Steps: (1) Formulate the cycle: symptom, worry, test, temporary relief, new restriction, more vigilance. (2) Validate that symptoms are real and distressing. (3) Use established approaches from Domain II (e.g. CBT for health anxiety: reducing checking and reassurance-seeking, tolerating uncertainty, behavioural experiments planned with the client's GP and dietitian where food is involved). (4) Treat repeat testing as a form of reassurance-seeking only if the client agrees with that framing. (5) Keep medical liaison open so real conditions are not missed.
Example language (illustrative): "I notice the relief after a session doesn't last long. Shall we map what happens in the days after?" / "What would it be like to live with not knowing for sure what causes the symptoms?"
Watch for: escalating avoidance, panic around exposure to "sensitising" foods or substances, any reintroduction of foods attempted without medical advice where true allergy is possible. Working: less checking, more flexible eating and activity, stable or improving function.

4.9 Responding to concerns about touch or practitioner conduct

Purpose: respond when a client describes hands-on testing that was not consented to, could not be stopped, or was sexual or intimate without clinical explanation. AK and lay kinesiology are hands-on; clients are entitled to explicit consent before and during touch, the right to stop at any time, and touch that is never sexual [synthesis].
Steps: (1) Listen and believe; do not interrogate. (2) Name that the client's right to consent and stop applies to every practitioner. (3) Assess current safety and distress; offer trauma-informed support. (4) Explain reporting options without pressure: the practitioner's statutory regulator if registered (e.g. a chiropractic board or council), the voluntary association if lay, and the police for sexual assault. (5) Follow safeguarding duties if the client is a child or an adult at risk. (6) Record what was said in the client's words.
Example language (illustrative): "You had the right to say no at any point. What happened when you felt uncomfortable?" / "If you want, we can look at who this could be reported to. There's no rush."
Watch for: self-blame, minimisation, the client returning to the practitioner out of obligation. Working: the client feels believed and makes an informed choice about reporting.

4.10 Managing the therapist's own boundaries and requests to muscle-test

Purpose: keep the therapy within scope when a client asks the therapist to muscle-test, endorse AK, refer to a practitioner, or buy products; or when a colleague uses muscle testing in psychotherapy. Use as soon as such a request arises.
Steps: (1) Decline to perform any muscle test or base any clinical judgement on one; psychological assessment rests on established techniques [source: APA Ethics Code 9.01, 2.04]. (2) Do not refer to, recommend or sell AK or products, and declare any financial link to a practitioner or product [source: APA Ethics Code 3.06]. (3) Explain the boundary warmly as about your role, not the client's choices. (4) If a colleague uses muscle testing to diagnose or select interventions, raise it with them, then with your supervisor or professional body if concerns remain [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "That's not something I do in therapy. My part is helping you think through what you want from it." / "I don't recommend particular practitioners or products, so you always know my advice isn't linked to anyone else's."
Watch for: the client feeling rejected; the therapist's own skepticism or enthusiasm leaking into the conversation. Working: the boundary is clear and the alliance stays intact.

4.11 Reporting routes

Purpose: know where to direct concerns about claims, products or conduct. Use when a client has been harmed, misled, or exploited, or with the client's consent when advertising is misleading.
Steps: (1) Advertising claims to diagnose or treat disease, or that discourage essential treatment: in the UK, the Advertising Standards Authority (CAP Code rules 12.1 and 12.2) [source: ASA/CAP 2021]; elsewhere, the national advertising or consumer regulator [uncertain: not verified per country]. (2) Supplements or products causing harm: the national medicines or food-safety regulator's adverse-event reporting scheme [uncertain: not verified per country]. (3) Registered health professionals (e.g. chiropractors): their statutory licensing board or council. (4) Lay practitioners: their voluntary association, and consumer-protection bodies for financial exploitation. (5) Children or adults at risk: local safeguarding procedures. (6) Discuss with the client first, except where a mandatory duty applies; record the decision.
Example language (illustrative): "The advert said this test could diagnose your condition. Advertising rules don't allow that without good evidence. Would you want to report it?"
Watch for: the client fearing retaliation or community fallout; reporting that would breach confidentiality without consent [source: APA Ethics Code 4.05]. Working: the client chooses a route with full information, and safeguarding duties are met.

5. Handling problems

The AK sources do not address psychotherapy alongside AK; all guidance in this section is [synthesis] unless a source is named.

The client feels judged and withdraws. Name it directly and repair: "I think my question came across as criticism. I'm interested in what helps you, not in telling you what to do." Return to 4.3 before any further information-giving.
The client treats test results as proof and asks the therapist to agree. Avoid debate. Acknowledge the felt experience, state the therapist's role, and, if the client asks for your view, give the evidence status in one neutral sentence [source: Kenney et al. 1988; Haas et al. 2007], then ask what they want to do with that information.
The client offers to demonstrate the test on the therapist. Decline kindly and explore what they hope the demonstration would show (4.10).
"Stuck": the client keeps returning for testing despite no change. Map costs and benefits over time; ask what "enough" would look like; explore whether testing has become reassurance-seeking (4.8).
Non-adherence to medical advice. Explore the reasons (fear, past bad experiences, cost, side effects, loyalty to the practitioner) before problem-solving; encourage the client to talk to the prescriber rather than stop anything alone; liaise with consent (4.5).
A practitioner advises stopping medicines or medical tests. Do not advise on the medicine. Encourage urgent contact with the prescriber, check for withdrawal or relapse risk via the GP, and consider whether the practitioner's advertising or conduct should be reported (4.11).
Escalating food restriction. Treat as a possible eating-disorder or nutrition risk: screen, involve the GP and a dietitian, and with children follow 4.7 [source for child malnutrition risk: NICE 2011].
Muscle testing used to "find" emotional causes, past events or traumas. Lay kinesiology may combine muscle testing with psychological techniques such as EFT or EMDR [source: Cochrane Australia/NHMRC 2024]. If a client reports a "discovered" past event they do not otherwise remember, avoid confirming or disputing it; explore its impact, slow down any trauma processing, and focus on stabilisation and current functioning.
Family conflict over AK. Hold a neutral stance; help family members state shared goals (the person's health and wellbeing); where a child is affected, the child's welfare takes priority (4.7).
Financial exploitation or multi-level-marketing recruitment. Look at spending and income together, name pressure tactics (urgency, testimonials, recruitment targets), support the client to set limits, and consider consumer-protection reporting (4.11).
Rupture from the therapist's own stance. Use supervision to examine strong skepticism or enthusiasm; the client's autonomy and safety, not the therapist's view of AK, set the agenda [source: APA Ethics Code 3.04 avoiding harm].
Overwhelm when health beliefs are questioned. Slow the pace, ground the client, and postpone decision talk until distress is lower, unless there is immediate medical risk.

Sources

Sources consulted:

Cited from secondary listing only: Lüdtke R et al. (2001), Complementary Therapies in Medicine, reliability and accuracy of AK tests [uncertain: secondary, unverified].

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