Atlas›Domain XIII · Contemplative & religious disciplines›Guide 127
Guide XIII-127

Spirit writing (fuji)

China
A 34 · L 51 · M 1514 interventions in the Trinity explorer
Client cardCompare
[source: …] where a claim comes from[uncertain] not confirmed in a primary source[synthesis] the writer's reconstruction

1. Introduction

Version followed: spirit writing as practised in Taiwanese phoenix halls (鸞堂 luantang), as described by the scholar Philip Clart (2012) and in Lin Tsui-feng's article on its origins (林翠鳳, 東海大學圖書館館刊 no. 13). Wider Chinese and Southeast Asian context comes from Greene's encyclopedia entry and a review of Goossaert's Making the Gods Speak (2022). Hong Kong Daoist temples, Singapore and Malaysia halls, and redemptive societies such as Yiguandao (一貫道) have their own versions, which are noted only where sources describe them. This guide gives no ritual procedure.

What it is. Spirit writing goes by several names: 扶乩 fuji ("supporting the planchette"), 扶鸞 fuluan ("supporting the phoenix") and 降筆 jiangbi ("descending brush"). In the tradition's own understanding, a deity or immortal sends a message through a medium. The medium moves a special stylus or planchette (鸞筆 luanbi) to form characters on sand or on a surface. Other participants read the characters aloud and write them down. The transcribed messages are compiled into revealed books (鸞書 luanshu) and morality books (善書 shanshu) [source: Lin, THU Library Journal; Greene, Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion]. Taiwanese halls describe their mission as "proclaiming and transforming on behalf of Heaven" (代天宣化 daitian xuanhua). Séances serve two main purposes. One is answering believers' questions and offering help, including healing and divination (濟世 jishi, "helping the world"). The other is composing scriptures and moral texts (著書 zhushu) [source: Clart 2012]. Halls also publish magazines and hold ancestor-salvation rites [source: Clart 2012].

History in brief. Lin traces related practices to early Daoist revelation literature, including the Eastern Jin Zhengao (真誥). The earliest Taiwanese record Lin cites is an entry in a 1719 county gazetteer [source: Lin]. In the late Ming, educated lay groups took over spirit-writing altars (乩壇 jitan) and used them for self-cultivation, moral reform, printing revealed texts, and charitable and medical work [source: Hsieh 2024 review of Goossaert 2022]. Spirit writing was central in 19th-century sectarian movements and in Yiguandao up to 1949. It remains important in some Yiguandao communities [source: Greene]. In Taiwan, phoenix halls have existed since the 19th century. During the Japanese colonial period they campaigned against opium use, and from the 1960s new "sectarian" halls appeared [source: Lin; Clart 2012].

Who leads and authorises it. Practitioners describe the gods as the source of authority, both for doctrine and for decisions about the hall. A medium's mandate depends on divine approval and can be withdrawn. In one documented case, a medium's authority was revoked after persistent moral lapses, and the decision was conveyed through another medium [source: Clart 2012]. Halls have named roles, including the medium (鸞生 luansheng, also 正鸞生 zhengluansheng), a reader-announcer (唱鸞生 changluansheng) and recorders and copyists. Lin describes these roles as sacred duties that are not to be taken lightly. Mediums are chosen for good character [source: Lin; Clart 2012; Greene]. An existing medium trains new mediums, and training may itself need the gods' approval [source: Clart 2012]. Greene states that practitioners usually enter a mild trance rather than full spirit possession [source: Greene].

How change happens, in the tradition's terms. Halls teach that divine messages guide people towards moral renewal: loyalty, filial piety, integrity, and practical help for the community. Reading and discussing the texts (參鸞 canluan) is described as a way to "guide the cultivation of body and mind" (導修身心) [source: Lin]. The psychotherapist does not perform, interpret or judge the rite. The clinical work runs alongside it. It covers the practice's meaning for the client, cultural assessment, accommodation, routing health questions to the client's doctor, scrupulosity and moral injury, grief and community, and collaboration with hall leaders when the client wishes [synthesis].

2. Framework

Spirit writing is a religious observance, not a therapy. No source gives phases, a session count or a format for clinical work alongside it. The structure below is a clinical sequence [synthesis], built on the DSM-5-TR Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI) and its supplementary modules [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules].

  • Phase A: Recognise and listen. Goal: notice that spirit writing matters to the client and find out their role: someone who consults a hall, a member, a family member, or a medium or other role-holder. Move on when: the client has described the practice in their own words and agreed to talk about it.
  • Phase B: Cultural formulation. Goal: use the core CFI and the Spirituality, Religion and Moral Traditions, Explanatory Model, and Coping and Help-Seeking modules. The APA notes that modules can be used at intake, later in care or repeatedly, and that questions can be rephrased or skipped [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules]. Move on when: you understand how the practice relates to the presenting problem, as a resource, a stressor or both.
  • Phase C: Differential assessment where needed. Goal: tell culturally normative trance or revelation apart from dissociative disorder, psychosis, mania or epilepsy. Move on when: any concerns have been assessed, or ruled out with the doctor's help.
  • Phase D: Shared plan. Goal: agree on accommodation, health routing, and treatment targets such as scrupulosity, grief, family conflict or role strain. Agree whether and how to involve hall leaders. Move on when: the plan is written down and the client has agreed to it.
  • Phase E: Ongoing work and review. Goal: deliver standard evidence-based treatment for the presenting problem, with the practice included where the client chooses. Revisit the CFI as rapport grows [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules].

Format: individual sessions, with family sessions where family decisions are tied up with revelations [synthesis].

3. Guiding principles

  • Attribute, do not adjudicate. Describe divine descent as the client and the hall understand it, and neither affirm nor dismiss it. In practice: "In your hall, the message is understood as coming from…" [synthesis].
  • The therapist is not a medium, interpreter or hall official. In practice: never interpret revealed texts, consult the planchette, or advise on hall roles [synthesis].
  • Look for practices, not labels. Groups differ widely in their potential for harm, and the same group affects people differently. In practice: ask about specific practices and their effects rather than categorising the group [source: ICSA overview].
  • Trance is not pathology by default. Initiatory crises and possession experiences should be assessed within the person's cultural framework. Elevated test scores do not necessarily indicate clinical disturbance [source: Lee & Kirmayer 2023, on Singaporean dang-ki spirit mediums, a related practice]. In practice: assess distress, control, duration and impairment before considering a diagnosis.
  • Expect concealment. Clients may hide possession-type experiences for fear of being called "crazy" [source: Lee & Kirmayer 2023]. In practice: ask in a matter-of-fact way and show respect before you probe.
  • Health questions go to the doctor. Halls offer healing as part of jishi, and historically gave medical services [source: Clart 2012; Hsieh 2024]. In practice: never assess or comment on remedies received through the planchette. Encourage the client to share them with their physician.
  • Separate OCD from faith. In scrupulosity, the target is the OCD, not the client's values [source: IOCDF]. In practice: treatment goals are framed as living by the client's own values with less fear.
  • The client decides about collaboration. Involving religious leaders is optional and depends on the client's wishes [source: IOCDF]. In practice: get explicit consent before any contact with the hall.
  • Competence and humility. Vieten et al. (2013) propose 16 spiritual and religious competencies (attitudes, knowledge, skills) for all licensed psychologists [source: noetic.org]. In practice: learn the basics of the client's tradition from scholarly sources, not only from the client.
  • Ethics. Avoid dual relationships, imposing your own values, and exploiting the client's trust [synthesis; consult your profession's ethics code, e.g. the APA Ethics Code, for exact standards].

4. Intervention inventory

These are the psychotherapist's tasks alongside the observance. None of them involves taking part in, directing or reproducing a séance. Unless a source is tagged, the steps are clinical synthesis.

4.1 Eliciting the meaning of spirit writing in the client's life

  • Purpose / when: At intake, or whenever the client mentions a hall, a revelation, a morality book or a "message from the gods". Clients can relate to the practice in very different ways. They may visit a hall to ask about a problem (問鸞 wenluan), belong as a member who studies the texts, have a family who belong, or serve as a medium, reader or recorder [source: Lin; Clart 2012].
  • Steps: (1) Ask which hall or temple the client attends and which deities are honoured there. (2) Ask about their role and how long they have been involved. (3) Ask what the practice gives them, such as guidance, moral direction, community or healing, and what it costs them. (4) Ask whether a message has touched on the current problem. (5) Reflect their meaning back in their own terms.
  • Example language (illustrative): "You mentioned asking the hall about your son. What did that mean to you, and what did the message say about the situation?" / "Some people go to a phoenix hall for advice, some study the texts, some serve in roles. Where do you fit?"
  • Watch for: the client checking whether you will mock them. Watch also for revelations that are carrying a decision the client feels unable to own, and for differences between the client's view and the family's. Working: the client volunteers more detail and links the practice to their goals.

4.2 Cultural Formulation Interview with the spirituality, religion and moral traditions module

  • Purpose / when: In Phase B, and again later as trust grows. The module covers five areas: identity and affiliation; the tradition's role in daily and family life; private and communal practices; how the tradition has helped with the problem; and stresses and conflicts, including discrimination and distress about identity or practice [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules].
  • Steps: (1) Start with the core CFI. (2) Add the Spirituality, Religion and Moral Traditions module, rephrasing questions for the hall setting. (3) Add the Explanatory Model module: what the client, the family and the hall think caused the problem, and what each thinks will help. (4) Add the Coping and Help-Seeking module: halls, doctors, mental health care and other healers used so far [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules]. (5) Write a short cultural formulation and check it with the client. Do not use the modules as the sole basis for diagnosis [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules].
  • Example language (illustrative): "How has your hall, or its teachings, helped you with this problem? Has anything about it made things harder?"
  • Watch for: explanatory models that compete, for example a hall attributing distress to karmic debt while a doctor diagnoses depression. Note where each one leads in practice. Working: the formulation names both resources and stressors, and the client recognises it as accurate.

4.3 Working with revelations the client brings

  • Purpose / when: The client brings a message they received at the hall, or a passage from a morality book, that bears on a decision, a relationship or their mood.
  • Steps: (1) Ask the client to share as much as they wish. (2) Explore what the message means to them and how certain they feel about how to read it. (3) Separate the message from what the client wants and what they fear. (4) If they are uncertain about meaning, suggest they ask the hall's own leaders. Do not interpret it yourself. (5) Use standard decision-making or values work on the parts that are the client's to decide.
  • Example language (illustrative): "I'm not the right person to say what the message means. That belongs to your hall. What I can help with is how you feel about it, and what you want to do."
  • Watch for: messages used within the family to settle conflicts. Halls themselves sometimes use revelations this way, and believers and outsiders may read the same message differently [source: Clart 2012]. Watch also for messages that seem to direct self-harm, stopping medical treatment, or handing over large sums of money. Treat these as clinical risk and assess them in the usual way. Working: the client can hold the message and their own judgement together.

4.4 Accommodation in scheduling and treatment

  • Purpose / when: The client attends regular séances, festivals or hall duties, or serves in a role with fixed commitments.
  • Steps: (1) Map the client's hall commitments. (2) Schedule sessions around them. (3) Allow for times of intense hall activity, such as festivals or the completion of a book. (4) Fit homework into the client's practice where they wish, for example reflective writing drawing on moral themes they value. (5) Respect dietary or other vows the client describes, and route any health effects to the doctor (4.5).
  • Example language (illustrative): "Which evenings does your hall meet? Let's keep those free."
  • Watch for: practice commitments pushing out sleep, work or family to the point of impairment. Ask about this neutrally. Working: attendance is steady and the client feels respected.

4.5 Routing health issues to the client's doctor

  • Purpose / when: The client mentions remedies, prescriptions or health advice received through the planchette, which belongs to the jishi function [source: Clart 2012; Lin]. Or the client has health effects linked to hall life, such as long late-night sessions, fatigue or exertion. Clart notes that one method is far less physically demanding than the traditional one [source: Clart 2012].
  • Steps: (1) Ask what was advised, without commenting on whether it is valid. (2) Ask whether their doctor knows about it. (3) Encourage the client to tell their doctor, and offer a letter or a joint call with consent. (4) If the advice affects prescribed treatment, including any psychiatric medication, refer the question to the prescriber. Do not advise on it yourself. (5) Record what you did.
  • Example language (illustrative): "That's important for your doctor to know so they can look after you properly. Would you be willing to tell them, or shall we do it together?"
  • Watch for: stopping medical treatment, delaying medical assessment of physical symptoms, and secrecy towards doctors. Working: the doctor knows about the advice and the client feels the hall is not being dismissed.
  • Status of health claims: halls offer healing as part of jishi in their own religious terms. No source here shows that spirit-writing remedies treat physical disease [synthesis].

4.6 Telling culturally normative trance apart from dissociative disorder, psychosis or a medical cause

  • Purpose / when: The client is a medium or trainee, reports unbidden trance or "descent" outside the hall, or the family or hall is worried. Greene describes the usual state in spirit writing as a mild trance, not full possession [source: Greene]. In possession, the person's usual identity is replaced by one attributed to a spirit or deity. Brief dissociative states in sanctioned religious settings, without other illness, create diagnostic conflict [source: "Dissociative possession states: illness or cultural?", J Neuropsychiatry].
  • Steps: (1) Take a history that includes when the client's religious involvement began and how the hall understands their experiences. (2) Ask about voluntariness and control: whether trance happens only within the rite, and whether the client can choose not to enter it. A trained dang-ki medium in Singapore said trance should happen only when one intends to summon a god [source: Lee & Kirmayer 2023]. (3) Apply criteria some authors use for abnormal possession: it lasts too long, it has no clear trigger or setting, or it has a negative orientation (Griffith and Ruiz, as cited in the J Neuropsychiatry article) [source: J Neuropsychiatry article]. (4) Screen for psychotic symptoms outside the religious frame, mood episodes, substance use and dissociative amnesia. (5) Refer for medical assessment, including exclusion of epilepsy, which can mimic dissociative states [source: J Neuropsychiatry article]. (6) Interpret any standardised measure with caution in this population [source: Lee & Kirmayer 2023]. (7) Where the problem is religious or spiritual rather than a disorder, consider the DSM-5-TR category for a religious or spiritual problem (Z65.8) as a focus of clinical attention [source: ICD-10-CM Z65.8].
  • Example language (illustrative): "When the writing comes through you at the hall, is that something you choose to begin? Has anything like it happened at home or at work, when you didn't intend it?"
  • Watch for: episodes outside the rite, loss of control, distress, functional decline, or messages that are persecutory or command harm. Watch also for the opposite error: treating a well-functioning medium as ill. Lee and Kirmayer found that most of the mediums they studied had no clinically significant distress, and some described an initial crisis that settled once they were trained [source: Lee & Kirmayer 2023]. Working: the assessment is shared with the client, and the outcome is either a clear plan or reassurance, with medical input where needed.

4.7 Supporting mediums and role-holders: role strain, shame and moral injury

  • Purpose / when: The client serves as a medium, reader or recorder, or is being considered for training, and is struggling with the role. In halls, a medium's mandate depends on the gods' approval. It can be withdrawn after moral lapses, and the decision may be announced publicly through another medium [source: Clart 2012]. Clart also describes a medium's moral struggles as a conflict between two sides of his personality. That is the author's interpretation, not a clinical finding [source: Clart 2012].
  • Steps: (1) Explore what the role means: honour, duty, identity, burden. (2) Identify specific stressors, such as public scrutiny, conflict in the hall, exhaustion, or the loss of a role. (3) If the client has lost a role or been sanctioned, work with shame and grief using standard methods, and explore the moral-injury theme: acting against one's own values, or feeling betrayed by those in authority. (4) Help the client decide what they want from the hall without directing them. (5) With consent, involve trusted hall elders (4.11).
  • Example language (illustrative): "Being chosen to hold the brush clearly meant a great deal. Losing it in front of everyone sounds deeply painful. What has that been like?"
  • Watch for: depression or suicidal thoughts after the loss of a role (assess risk following current standards), and isolation from the community. Working: the client can name their own values apart from the role and makes a choice they own.

4.8 Scrupulosity and religious OCD

  • Purpose / when: Morality-book teaching on merit, sin and retribution, and repeated visits to ask the gods, can become the content of OCD. IOCDF lists obsessions such as fear of offending God, of having sinned, of divine punishment or of possession. It lists compulsions such as excessive confession, reassurance-seeking from religious leaders, repeated prayer and moral self-monitoring [source: IOCDF].
  • Steps: (1) Screen for distress and impairment that go beyond what the hall itself asks. IOCDF notes that scrupulosity often fixes on one narrow practice while others are neglected [source: IOCDF]. (2) Make the diagnosis using standard OCD assessment. (3) Explain that treatment targets the OCD, not the faith [source: IOCDF]. (4) Use ERP as the main psychological treatment [source: IOCDF]. Plan exposures that stay within the client's religious limits, for example reducing repeated visits to the hall for reassurance or repeated rereading of morality books. Do not plan exposures that ask the client to act against their faith [synthesis]. (5) With the client's consent, ask hall leaders to clarify what the tradition actually requires. IOCDF describes involving religious leaders as optional [source: IOCDF]. (6) Refer medication questions to the prescriber.
  • Example language (illustrative): "Your hall teaches you to do good. The OCD is telling you you're never good enough, and that you must keep checking. Let's work on the OCD so you can follow your teaching without the fear."
  • Watch for: reassurance-seeking moving to the therapist, and hall leaders unintentionally feeding reassurance. Working: fewer checks and consultations, less distress, and the client's practice returning to what they value.

4.9 Grief, ancestors and community

  • Purpose / when: The client turns to a hall after a death. Halls hold ancestor-salvation rites [source: Clart 2012], and a client may seek or receive messages about the dead.
  • Steps: (1) Ask what the client has done or received, and what it meant to them. (2) Support the parts of the rite that comfort them, as part of standard grief work. (3) Explore messages that raised guilt or fear, gently. (4) Build community support, including the hall if the client wishes. (5) Screen for prolonged grief and depression in the usual way.
  • Example language (illustrative): "What did it mean to you to have a rite done for your father?"
  • Watch for: messages taken as blame, and repeated consultations driven by anxiety (see 4.8). Working: the client feels both connected to the person who died and able to go on.

4.10 Family and intergenerational conflict

  • Purpose / when: Family members disagree about the hall: about joining, a revealed instruction, money given to the hall, or conversion to another faith [synthesis].
  • Steps: (1) Map each person's position and what it means to them. (2) Hold family sessions where everyone feels safe to take part. (3) Separate religious disagreement from practical decisions. (4) Use the CFI Explanatory Model module with each member [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules]. (5) Look for workable agreements that respect each person's conscience.
  • Example language (illustrative): "It sounds as if the message matters very much to your mother, and you see it differently. Can we look at the decision itself, apart from who is right about the message?"
  • Watch for: coercion, financial exploitation, and harm to children (4.13). Working: fewer escalations, and decisions the family can live with.

4.11 Collaborating with hall leaders when the client wishes

  • Purpose / when: The client wants their hall's head, elders or a senior medium involved: to clarify teaching, to adjust duties, or to support recovery. IOCDF notes that religious leaders can clarify the community's official position [source: IOCDF].
  • Steps: (1) Get written consent that names the person and the scope of what may be shared. (2) Agree with the client what will and will not be shared. (3) Keep the contact practical: duties, schedule, support. Do not discuss revelations or doctrine. (4) Do not ask the hall to give a ruling through the planchette for clinical purposes. (5) Tell the client what was said.
  • Example language (illustrative), to an elder: "With [client]'s permission, I'm getting in touch to ask how the hall usually supports a member who needs to step back from their duties for a while."
  • Watch for: confidentiality leaks within a small community, and pressure on the client. Working: the client feels supported by both the hall and therapy.

4.12 High-control dynamics, leaving a hall, and religious trauma

  • Purpose / when: The client describes pressure, fear of divine punishment for leaving, exploitation, or distress after leaving. ICSA takes a spectrum view: most groups are not harmful, and harm depends on specific practices and on how leaders use their power [source: ICSA overview]. Revelations that authorise institutional decisions [source: Clart 2012] can, in some settings, concentrate power in those who control the planchette [synthesis].
  • Steps: (1) Explore specific practices and their effects (ICSA advises focusing on practices, not labels) [source: ICSA overview]. (2) Ask about the physical, psychological, economic, social and spiritual harms ICSA lists [source: ICSA overview]. (3) Watch for self-blame. ICSA notes that former members often blame themselves until they understand how persuasion works [source: ICSA overview]. Offer psychoeducation gently. (4) Support the client's own decision to stay, change or leave. (5) After leaving, work with grief, identity, fear of punishment and rebuilding community.
  • Example language (illustrative): "Whether you stay or go is your decision. I'd like to understand what happens when someone in your hall disagrees with a message."
  • Watch for: financial or sexual exploitation, threats, or isolation. Follow your legal reporting duties. Do not call any group a "cult". Working: the client feels less fear and more able to choose.

4.13 Children and young people

  • Purpose / when: A minor attends a hall, is involved in its duties, or is the subject of family decisions based on revelations.
  • Steps: (1) Assess the child's own view and assent, at their developmental level. The CFI has a school-age and adolescent module with a parents' addendum [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules]. (2) Check for harms: missed schooling, health advice replacing medical care, or harsh discipline. (3) Follow local safeguarding procedures where you have concerns [synthesis]. Example language (illustrative), to a child: "What do you like about going to the temple with your family? Is there anything about it you don't like?"
  • Watch for: medical neglect, and exhaustion from late hours. Working: the child's welfare and voice are protected.

4.14 Holding the therapist's role and competence

  • Purpose / when: Throughout.
  • Steps: (1) Do not take part in séances, ask questions at the hall on the client's behalf, or interpret messages. (2) Think carefully before attending events as a guest. Weigh the risk of a dual relationship, and talk it over with the client [synthesis]. (3) Disclose your own beliefs only when it helps the client, and briefly. (4) Build competence in line with Vieten et al.'s 16 competencies (attitudes, knowledge, skills) [source: noetic.org]. Use the scholarly sources listed below. (5) Seek consultation from colleagues who know Chinese religion.
  • Example language (illustrative): "I'm not part of your tradition, so I'll sometimes ask you to teach me. You're the expert on what it means to you."
  • Watch for: curiosity that turns into voyeurism, or your own scepticism or enthusiasm showing. Working: the client experiences respect without the therapist claiming religious authority.

5. Handling problems

This section is clinical synthesis unless a source is tagged.

  • The client fears you will think they are "crazy". Concealment is documented [source: Lee & Kirmayer 2023]. Say plainly that spirit writing is a long-established practice with a large literature. Ask about it in a matter-of-fact way.
  • A message contradicts the treatment plan, for example "stop seeing the doctor" or "no need for therapy". Explore it without arguing over what it means. Ask whether hall leaders could clarify. Assess risk if treatment is stopped. Give the client's doctor a role in medical decisions. Keep the door open.
  • The client wants you to accept the message as true, or to dismiss it. Do neither. Reflect what it means to them and return to their goals.
  • The family relies on revelations to override an adult client's choices. Use 4.10. Affirm the client's autonomy. Screen for coercion.
  • Stuck in reassurance loops, with repeated visits to the hall or calls to elders. Reframe this as OCD, not faith (4.8) [source: IOCDF]. Set up ERP step by step.
  • Overwhelm after an intense séance, or trance outside the hall. Use grounding and orientation in the session. Advise rest. Arrange medical assessment if trance is involuntary or recurrent (4.6) [source: J Neuropsychiatry article; Lee & Kirmayer 2023].
  • A medium has lost their role or been sanctioned. Treat the shame and grief (4.7). Assess suicide risk following current standards. Strengthen supports outside the hall.
  • Rupture over cultural misunderstanding. Name it, apologise for the specific misstep, and ask the client to correct you. The CFI Patient–Clinician Relationship module prompts clinicians to reflect after the interview on how cultural similarity and difference shaped the work [source: APA CFI Supplementary Modules].
  • Missed sessions on hall nights. Re-plan the schedule (4.4). Do not treat religious commitments as resistance.
  • Health advice from the planchette conflicts with medical care. Route it to the doctor (4.5). Do not assess the remedy yourself.
  • Signs of exploitation or abuse in a hall. Document. Follow reporting duties. Support the client's safety planning (4.12) [source: ICSA overview].
  • Name confusion. The same practice is called 扶乩, 扶鸞 or 降筆, and halls may be called 鸞堂, 乩壇 or temples [source: Lin; Hsieh 2024]. Use the client's own words.
  • Not addressed by any source here: clinical outcome data for therapy alongside spirit writing, and any validated adaptation of a psychotherapy for phoenix-hall members [uncertain: not verified].

Sources

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