Atlas›Domain XIV · Western esoteric, divinatory & new spiritual movements›Guide 097
Guide XIV-097

Hardinge Britten

Emma Hardinge Britten1871London, England
A 33 · L 49 · M 1816 interventions in the Trinity explorer2 described for recognition only
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[source: …] where a claim comes from[uncertain] not confirmed in a primary source[synthesis] the writer's reconstruction

1. Introduction

Version followed: Emma Hardinge Britten (1823–1899) as historians and the Society for Psychical Research's Psi Encyclopedia, the World Religions and Spirituality Project (WRSP) and the Spiritualists' National Union (SNU) describe her; the SNU's present-day wording of the Seven Principles as the living form of her legacy. Cross-refer 094 for Modern Spiritualism as a movement and its present-day churches.

Emma Hardinge Britten is a historical figure, not a therapy. She (born Emma Floyd in London, 2 May 1823; died Manchester, 2 October 1899) was a musician and stage performer who, after moving to New York in 1855, became one of the best-known Spiritualist mediums, lecturers, editors and historians of the movement on both sides of the Atlantic [source: Psi Encyclopedia; WRSP timeline]. "Hardinge" was presumably a stage name [source: WRSP timeline, citing Demarest]. Her main works include Modern American Spiritualism: A Twenty Years' Record of the Communion Between Earth and the World of Spirits (dated 1870 by the Psi Encyclopedia; 1869 in the WRSP timeline [uncertain: sources differ]), Ghost Land (1876), Nineteenth Century Miracles (1883 or 1884 [uncertain: sources differ]) and a short manual, Rules to be Observed When Forming Spiritual Circles (1868 per the Psi Encyclopedia; a revival edition dates it 1870 [uncertain]), described as her most-reproduced text [source: Psi Encyclopedia, citing Demarest]. She was among the founding members of the Theosophical Society in New York in 1875 and left after a rivalry with H. P. Blavatsky [source: Psi Encyclopedia; WRSP timeline]. In Manchester she edited The Two Worlds (started 1887, per WRSP) and Unseen Universe [source: Psi Encyclopedia; WRSP timeline].

Her lasting influence on clients today runs mainly through the Seven Principles of the SNU, which the SNU says were "given to us through the mediumship of Emma Hardinge Britten" [source: SNU, Seven Principles page]. Historians date the core of them to a lecture at Cleveland Hall, London, on 30 April 1871 [source: Psi Encyclopedia]; she said the principles came from spirits (an account linked to the spirit of the social reformer Robert Owen), and the wording varied in number and form until about 1887 [source: SNU, Creed of the Spirits booklet page; WRSP timeline]. In Spiritualist belief, the core idea of change is that communication with the dead demonstrates continued life, and that each person's own conduct, not mediation by a church, determines their progress after death (personal responsibility, compensation and retribution, eternal progress) [source: SNU, Seven Principles page]. These are the movement's beliefs, stated here as held, neither as fact nor dismissed. Evidence status in one line: controlled evidence that mediums obtain information about the dead by paranormal means is contested and not accepted in mainstream science [synthesis].

For the psychotherapist, there is no "Hardinge Britten method" to deliver. The work is to understand what her legacy means to a client (most often a Spiritualist church member, a developing medium, a bereaved person who sits with mediums, or someone drawn to Victorian occultism through books and online revivals), to assess without pathologising belief, and to manage grief, dependency, dissociation and boundary issues where they arise [synthesis].

2. Framework

There are no therapy phases or session counts in the sources; the framework below is a historical map plus a clinical sequence for when a client brings this material [synthesis].

A. The historical phases, as sources document them

  • 1823–1855, England: musical and theatrical career; from 1840 involvement with the "Orphic Circle", an occult group that, by her later account, used children as "clairvoyants and somnambulists" [source: Psi Encyclopedia].
  • 1855–1865, United States: becomes a medium (WRSP dates this to February 1856), first public lecture 1857, lecture tours including the South, campaigning for abolition, women's rights and Lincoln's re-election, and a widely reported eulogy for Lincoln in April 1865 [source: WRSP timeline; Psi Encyclopedia]. Her lectures were praised as flowing "without preparation or effort" [source: Psi Encyclopedia, quoting Robertson 1908].
  • 1865–1881, transatlantic: alternates between Britain and the USA; publishes her history of American Spiritualism; marries (1870); the 1871 principles; the Theosophical Society episode (1875); occult books Art Magic and Ghost Land (1876); missionary tours to Australia and New Zealand (1878–79) [source: WRSP timeline; Psi Encyclopedia]. Art Magic was published anonymously, with her named as editor; its authorship remains disputed [source: Wikipedia; uncertain: secondary, unverified].
  • 1881–1899, Manchester: editing, lecturing, writing; her autobiography appeared posthumously in 1900, edited by her sister; her biographer notes that it shapes and elides events [source: Psi Encyclopedia, citing Demarest].

B. What is practised today, by whom, and how it reaches clients

  • SNU churches and centres (UK; founded 1901; registered charity; about 300 churches and centres) teach the Seven Principles as the basis of their religion; the inspirational address in a service is based on them [source: SNU, About us; SNU, Seven Principles page].
  • Mediumship and healing training: the SNU's Arthur Findlay College at Stansted Hall offers residential courses in Spiritualist philosophy and practice, healing and "spiritual and psychic unfolding" [source: SNU, Arthur Findlay College page]. The SNU accredits healers and has a healing committee, ministry code of conduct, complaints committee and safeguarding manager [source: SNU, About us].
  • In the United States, the National Spiritualist Association of Churches is reported to use a version of the principles [source: Wikipedia; uncertain: secondary, unverified].
  • Books and online: reprints of her works, SNU publications (including a booklet on how her principles developed), historians' blogs and revival editions of her circle rules, aimed at people who wish to hold home séances or combine Spiritualism with occultism [source: SNU, Creed of the Spirits page; Substack revival post].

C. Clinical sequence when a client brings this material [synthesis]

  1. Engage: learn the client's own vocabulary and affiliation (church member, home circle, developing medium, sitter, reader of occult history).
  2. Assess: cultural formulation, function of the practice, risk (grief, dissociation, psychosis, dependency, money).
  3. Formulate: how the belief and practice serve or burden the client's goals.
  4. Intervene within therapeutic scope (Section 4), never as medium or spiritual teacher.
  5. Review and refer: community resources, medical or psychiatric referral where indicated.

Criteria for moving on: from 1 to 2 once the client feels their belief is respected; from 2 to 3 once risk is clarified; to referral as soon as red flags (Section 4.6, 5) appear [synthesis].

3. Guiding principles

  • Describe, do not adjudicate. Spirits, mediumship and the afterlife are the client's beliefs; neither confirm nor debunk. Practical meaning: reflect what the client believes in their own terms [synthesis].
  • Historical accuracy, offered only when useful. Sources differ on dates and on how the principles came about; the SNU itself acknowledges past confusion over their origin [source: SNU, Creed of the Spirits page]. Practical meaning: share history only if the client asks or it eases distress, and present it as historians' views.
  • Respect personal responsibility as the client's value. The fifth principle stresses accountability for one's thoughts, words and deeds [source: SNU, Seven Principles page]. Practical meaning: this value can support agency in therapy, but watch for it turning into self-blame [synthesis].
  • Grief first. Many people meet Spiritualism through bereavement; visiting a medium can maintain a continuing bond and was associated with some well-being measures in one thesis [source: Edinburgh thesis 2007]. Practical meaning: treat sittings as part of the client's grief process, not as the problem by default.
  • Do not pathologise belief; do assess function. Practical meaning: the question is whether experiences cause distress or impairment, not whether they are "real" [synthesis].
  • Stay out of the spiritual role. The therapist is not a medium, healer or teacher, and gives no readings, messages or circle instruction in therapy [synthesis].
  • Code it if relevant. The DSM-5-TR category "Religious or Spiritual Problem" is coded Z65.8; ICD-10-CM Z65.8 includes religious or spiritual problem [source: ICD-10-CM Z65.8 (Unbound Medicine)]; DSM-5-TR wording [uncertain: not verified]. Practical meaning: use for spiritual distress that is not a mental disorder.
  • Safeguard children. Historical occult circles used children as seers [source: Psi Encyclopedia]; the SNU names a safeguarding manager [source: SNU, About us]. Practical meaning: ask about children's involvement in circles or messages, and follow local safeguarding procedures.
  • Community as resource. Practical meaning: with the client's consent, an SNU minister or the SNU complaints or safeguarding route can be part of the plan [source for the routes: SNU, About us; plan: synthesis].

4. Intervention inventory

The first five items describe the practices associated with Hardinge Britten and her legacy as historians and the SNU describe them, so that the therapist recognises what the client is doing. They are not for the therapist to perform. Items 4.6 to 4.16 are the psychotherapist's own work [synthesis unless a source is given].

4.1 The home spirit circle (historical practice, public outline)

  • Purpose and context: Hardinge Britten wrote instructions on how to form and sustain spirit circles and investigate manifestations; her Rules to be Observed When Forming Spiritual Circles (1868) became her most-reproduced text, and she also wrote On the Spirit Circle and the Laws of Mediumship (1871) [source: Psi Encyclopedia]. Home circles were small private séances held by families and friends to receive communications [synthesis]. The specific rules are not set out here [uncertain: not verified]; a modern revival edition with commentary is circulating to people who want to hold home séances [source: Substack revival post].
  • Steps (for recognition only): the therapist needs only the outline: who sits, how often, whether a developing medium is present, what is "received", and how messages are used in decisions [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "You mentioned you sit in a circle on Thursdays. Tell me what that's like for you, and what you take away from it."
  • Watch for: sitting alone at night with intense expectation; messages used for major decisions (money, relationships, medical care); children used as "seers" (historically, the Orphic Circle used children as clairvoyants [source: Psi Encyclopedia]); a group leader who controls interpretation [synthesis].

4.2 Inspirational speaking and the Spiritualist service address (historical and current)

  • Purpose and context: Hardinge Britten was known for lectures delivered, admirers said, "without preparation or effort" [source: Psi Encyclopedia, quoting Robertson 1908], and was called a trance lecturer [source: Wikipedia; uncertain: secondary, unverified]. Today the inspirational address in an SNU service is based on the Seven Principles [source: SNU, Seven Principles page].
  • Steps (for recognition only): a client who gives addresses or "inspired" talks may describe words arriving without conscious planning; ask about the felt experience, control, and recovery afterwards [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "When you stand up to speak and the words come, how much of you is still choosing what to say?"
  • Watch for: loss of control or amnesia outside the church setting, distress afterwards, or the experience spreading into daily life uninvited, which call for dissociation screening (4.8, 4.12) [synthesis].

4.3 The Seven Principles as a creed (current)

  • Purpose and context: In the SNU's current wording: the Fatherhood of God; the Brotherhood of Man; the Communion of Spirits and the Ministry of Angels; the Continuous Existence of the Human Soul; Personal Responsibility; Compensation and Retribution Hereafter for all the Good and Evil Deeds done on Earth; Eternal Progress Open to every Human Soul [source: SNU, Seven Principles page]. The SNU says they help Spiritualists "navigate and combine their spiritual and human journeys" [source: SNU, Seven Principles page].
  • Steps (for recognition): note which principle the client leans on most, especially when distressed (continued existence in grief; responsibility and retribution in guilt; eternal progress in hope) [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "Of the principles your church teaches, which one feels closest to you right now?"
  • Watch for: retribution read as personal punishment; "progress" read as a demand never to rest [synthesis].

4.4 Her occult writings (historical, public outline only)

  • Purpose and context: Her writing turned toward practical occult techniques in Ghost Land (1876) [source: Psi Encyclopedia]; Art Magic (1876), on the history of magic, suggests a belief that people could become "God-men" with extraordinary powers [source: WRSP timeline]. A revival writer reports that Art Magic influenced later occult groups [source: Substack revival post; uncertain]. These books are reprinted and discussed online. Operations in them are not described here; magical or spirit-contact procedures are noted only by purpose and context.
  • Steps: ask what the client is reading, why it attracts them, and whether they are practising anything from it [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "What drew you to these Victorian occult books, and what are you hoping they open up for you?"
  • Watch for: solitary, escalating practice; grandiosity linked to ideas of special powers; sleep loss; withdrawal [synthesis].

4.5 Mediumship development and Spiritualist healing (current)

  • Purpose and context: The SNU runs the Arthur Findlay College for courses in Spiritualist philosophy, healing, and "spiritual and psychic unfolding" [source: SNU, Arthur Findlay College page], and accredits healers through a healing committee that sets curriculum, assessment and standards [source: SNU, About us]. Health claims for Spiritualist healing are the movement's own; evidence status: not established as treatment for any physical disease [synthesis]. No practice described here treats physical or mental illness.
  • Steps: ask whether the client attends a development circle or course, who leads it, costs, and how often they practise [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "How is your development circle going? How do you feel the day after a session?"
  • Watch for: healing used instead of medical care; a teacher discouraging medical or psychological help; paid courses escalating; the client's own experiences becoming frightening (route to 4.8, 4.12) [synthesis].

4.6 Engagement and client-led exploration of meaning

  • Purpose and when: at the start, whenever Spiritualism, mediums or Hardinge Britten's ideas come up [synthesis].
  • Steps: (1) ask permission to explore the topic; (2) use the client's words (spirit world, guides, circle, the principles); (3) ask what the belief gives them and what it costs; (4) summarise without evaluating; (5) agree whether spirituality is a therapy goal, a resource or simply context [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "I'm not here to judge whether the spirit world is real; I'm here to understand what it means in your life. Is it okay if we talk about it?"
  • Watch for: the client testing whether you will mock or recruit them; relief when belief is respected; working alliance improving [synthesis].

4.7 Cultural formulation

  • Purpose and when: early assessment, or when belief and symptoms are hard to separate. Use the DSM-5-TR Cultural Formulation Interview and its supplementary module on spirituality, religion and moral traditions [uncertain: not verified].
  • Steps: cover the client's definition of the problem, cultural explanations (e.g. spirit influence), community supports (church, circle), stressors, help-seeking (mediums, healers, doctors), and what they expect from therapy [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "Some people in your church would see this as spirit contact. How do you see it, and how do the people closest to you see it?"
  • Watch for: whether the client's community would view the experience as normal or as unusual; this helps differential assessment [synthesis].

4.8 Differential assessment without pathologising belief

  • Purpose and when: when experiences (voices, presences, "messages", trance) cause distress or impairment [synthesis].
  • Steps: (1) ask about onset, context and control (only in the circle, or anywhere; can the client stop it?); (2) look for wider signs of psychosis, mania (reduced sleep, pressured speech, grandiosity), dissociative symptoms, OCD (intrusive fear of spirits, ritual checking), complicated grief, substance use, and medical causes; (3) compare with the client's community norms (4.7); (4) refer for psychiatric or medical assessment when indicated [synthesis]. Where spiritual distress is the focus without a mental disorder, consider Religious or Spiritual Problem, Z65.8 [source: ICD-10-CM Z65.8 (Unbound Medicine)].
  • Example language (illustrative): "When you hear your grandmother's voice, does it happen only when you sit in circle, or at other times too? Can you choose to close it down?"
  • Watch for: experiences that are welcome, controllable and confined to practice settings point away from disorder; uncontrolled, frightening, spreading experiences with functional decline point toward further assessment [synthesis].

4.9 Grief work with sittings and continuing bonds

  • Purpose and when: bereaved clients who visit mediums, attend demonstrations or sit in circles. One study found that visiting a medium was associated with less life disruption and greater life satisfaction among the bereaved, interpreted as maintaining an evolving bond with the deceased [source: Edinburgh thesis 2007]; frequency of visits showed no effect in that study.
  • Steps: (1) ask what the sittings mean and how the client feels before and after; (2) explore the relationship with the deceased directly (memories, unfinished business, anniversaries); (3) support continuing-bond rituals the client chooses; (4) track whether sittings help the client live forward or replace living; (5) address guilt, especially after sudden deaths, which were associated with stronger grief in that study [source for sudden-death finding: Edinburgh thesis 2007; steps: synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "After the reading, what did you carry home with you? Is there anything you still wish you could say to him yourself?"
  • Watch for: comfort, more engagement with daily life (working); or rising spend, waiting for the next message, decisions deferred to messages, distress at "bad" messages (route to 4.11) [synthesis].

4.10 Working with the Seven Principles as values material

  • Purpose and when: when the client's faith can support therapy goals, with consent [synthesis].
  • Steps: (1) ask which principles matter most; (2) link them to concrete values (care for others from the "brotherhood" principle, agency from personal responsibility, hope from eternal progress); (3) set small actions consistent with those values; (4) check for rigid or punitive readings (e.g. retribution as fear) and explore them gently [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "You said personal responsibility matters to you. What would taking responsibility look like this week, in a way that is kind to you as well?"
  • Watch for: values-based action increasing (working); scrupulosity or fear of retribution (consider OCD assessment) [synthesis].

4.11 Dependency, compulsive consulting and financial exploitation

  • Purpose and when: frequent paid readings, escalating course fees, or decisions handed to messages [synthesis].
  • Steps: (1) map frequency, spending and decisions linked to sittings; (2) explore the function (reassurance, contact, avoiding decisions); (3) agree experiments (delay a sitting, make one decision without a reading); (4) where fraud or pressure is involved, note that SNU churches have a complaints committee and a code of conduct for appointment holders [source: SNU, About us]; other options include consumer or police reporting [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "What would happen if you waited a month before the next sitting? What feeling would you be left with?"
  • Watch for: anxiety rising when sittings are delayed (reassurance cycle); secrecy about money; a reader claiming the client needs paid help to remove a problem [synthesis].

4.12 Adverse effects of circle sitting and development

  • Purpose and when: clients developing mediumship who report fear, intrusive presences, sleep problems, derealisation or depersonalisation [synthesis].
  • Steps: (1) normalise asking about difficult experiences; (2) assess severity and safety; (3) grounding skills (orienting to the room, naming objects, feet on the floor); (4) suggest pausing intensive practice and discussing it with the circle leader if the client wishes; (5) refer if psychotic or manic features, or severe dissociation, emerge [synthesis]. Channelled or trance-derived "memories" carry risks of suggestion; cross-refer Domain VI 110.
  • Example language (illustrative): "It sounds like the door you opened in circle doesn't close when you go home. Shall we work on ways to close it until you feel steadier?"
  • Watch for: grounding working within minutes; symptoms fading with reduced practice (working); persistence or escalation (refer) [synthesis].

4.13 Children and safeguarding

  • Purpose and when: children present in circles, given messages, or told they are mediums; children kept from medical care in favour of spiritual healing [synthesis].
  • Steps: ask about children's involvement; assess fear, sleep and behaviour; consider assessment for any developmental or mental-health condition; follow local safeguarding procedures; SNU churches have a safeguarding manager [source: SNU, About us; rest: synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "How does your daughter feel about the circle? Has she said anything about it frightening her?"
  • Watch for: a child's fear dismissed as spiritual gift; medical refusal; pressure on the child to perform [synthesis].

4.14 Boundaries and role clarity

  • Purpose and when: throughout, and especially if the client asks for messages, validation of their gift, or the therapist's own beliefs [synthesis].
  • Steps: decline to give readings or messages; keep any personal spiritual practice outside therapy; use self-disclosure only if it serves the client; seek supervision for dual-role situations (for example, meeting the client at a church) [synthesis]. Spiritual and religious competencies for psychologists are outlined by Vieten et al. 2013 [uncertain: not verified].
  • Example language (illustrative): "My role is to help you with what is happening in your life, not to bring messages. Your church is the place for that. Here, let's look at how you are coping."
  • Watch for: the client idealising the therapist as a spiritual helper [synthesis].

4.15 Referral and community liaison

  • Purpose and when: when a client wants spiritual guidance, has a complaint about a medium or healer, or needs psychiatric or medical care [synthesis].
  • Steps: with consent: an SNU minister or church officer for spiritual questions; the SNU complaints committee for conduct concerns [source: SNU, About us]; GP or psychiatrist for medical and psychiatric assessment; bereavement services for grief [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "Would it help to talk with your minister about this, alongside our work here?"
  • Watch for: the client feeling handed off; arrange the referral as an addition, not a replacement [synthesis].

4.16 Historical information as psychoeducation (only if asked)

  • Purpose and when: a client distressed by doubt about origins (e.g. learning the principles' wording changed over time) [synthesis].
  • Steps: offer what historians and the SNU say, neutrally: the wording varied until about 1887, and the SNU itself publishes on how the principles developed [source: SNU, Creed of the Spirits page]; let the client decide what this means for their faith [synthesis].
  • Example language (illustrative): "Historians and your own church have written about how the principles took shape over time. How does knowing that sit with you?"
  • Watch for: faith crisis or religious trauma emerging (Section 5) [synthesis].

5. Handling problems

The sources on Hardinge Britten and the SNU do not address therapy problems; all guidance below is [synthesis] unless a source is given.

  • Client expects the therapist to confirm or deny spirit contact. Name your role and stay curious: "I can't tell you what the spirit world is, but I can help you with what these experiences are doing in your life" (illustrative). Return to function and goals (4.6, 4.14).
  • Client fears the therapist will see them as ill. Explain that belief is not a symptom and that you assess distress, not faith (4.8). Invite them to tell you if you get their tradition wrong.
  • Stuck grief sustained by repeated sittings. Do not ban sittings; explore what each one gives and what it postpones. Introduce direct grief work alongside (memories, letters to the deceased, anniversary planning) and track whether sittings become fewer by the client's choice (4.9).
  • Resistance to medical or psychiatric referral ("it's spiritual, not illness"). Frame assessment as ruling things out, not ruling faith out. Offer to involve their minister if they wish (4.15). If there is risk to self or others, follow standard risk-assessment and emergency procedures regardless of belief.
  • Overwhelm or dissociation during or after practice. Ground first (4.12), then reduce intensity: suggest the client discuss pausing development work with their circle leader. If symptoms persist or psychotic or manic features appear, refer urgently.
  • Non-adherence to between-session tasks because messages say otherwise. Explore the message's meaning and the client's own wish; design tasks the client can align with their principles (4.10). Avoid a contest between you and the spirit world.
  • Rupture after you questioned a medium's practice or charges. Acknowledge the hurt, clarify that your concern is the client's wellbeing and money, not their faith, and invite them to set the pace (4.11).
  • Faith crisis after learning the history (e.g. how the principles developed). Validate both the loss and the freedom; help the client decide what they keep. Consider religious-trauma themes if the community reacted harshly to doubt. Offer contact with their minister or other members if wanted (4.16).
  • Exploitation or a coercive teacher. Map control (isolation, money, threats of spiritual consequences), plan safety, document, and support complaints: the SNU's complaints committee for SNU-affiliated churches [source: SNU, About us]; consumer or police routes otherwise. Cross-refer 094 for wider movement issues.
  • Children at risk. Follow local safeguarding procedures; SNU churches have a safeguarding manager [source: SNU, About us] (4.13).
  • The therapist's own beliefs (sceptic or Spiritualist). Take them to supervision; keep personal practice out of the room; disclose only if it clearly helps the client (4.14).
  • Fascination with Victorian occultism turning solitary and escalating. Explore meaning, check sleep, isolation and grandiosity, and assess for mood or psychotic disorder (4.4, 4.8).

Sources

Web sources:

Books and works cited (as listed in the sources above):

  • Hardinge Britten, E. (1868). Rules to be Observed When Forming Spiritual Circles. Date [uncertain]: sources differ.
  • Hardinge Britten, E. (1870). Modern American Spiritualism: A Twenty Years' Record of the Communion Between Earth and the World of Spirits (date [uncertain]: 1869 in one source).
  • Hardinge Britten, E. (1876). Ghost Land; or, Researches into the Mysteries of Occultism.
  • Hardinge Britten, E. (1883/1884). Nineteenth Century Miracles; or, Spirits and Their Work in Every Country of the Earth. Date [uncertain]: sources differ.
  • Britten, E. H. (1900). The Autobiography of Emma Hardinge Britten (published posthumously).
  • Demarest, M. (2011). Back From Jerusalem: The Life and Times of Emma Hardinge Britten, Spiritualist Propagandist (slide presentation).
  • Robertson, J. (1908). Spiritualism: The Open Door to the Unseen Universe.
  • Gaunt, P. J. The Creed of the Spirits: Principles of Emma Hardinge Britten. SNU (year [uncertain]).
  • Vieten, C., et al. (2013). Spiritual and religious competencies for psychologists [uncertain: not verified].
  • American Psychiatric Association. DSM-5-TR Cultural Formulation Interview and supplementary modules [uncertain: not verified].
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