Australian bush adventure therapy

1. Introduction

Version followed: bush adventure therapy (BAT) as described by the Australian Association for Bush Adventure Therapy (AABAT) and its ethical principles, by the Australian practice literature of Pryor, Carpenter and colleagues (bio-psycho-socio-ecological model; four key elements), and by Outdoor Health Australia's published position; one Australian programme manual (PCYC Bornhoffen, Coker and Perske 2022) is used as the worked example of phases; the international ethics are the Association for Experiential Education (AEE) guidelines adapted from the Therapeutic Adventure Professional Group (TAPG). A name sometimes given for the field's body, "Bush Adventure Therapy Alliance", is [uncertain: not verified]; the professional body named in the sources is AABAT.

BAT is a field of practice and an umbrella term, not a single manualised psychotherapy. AABAT describes it as "a diverse field of practice combining adventure and outdoor environments" with therapeutic intention [source: Outdoors Queensland fact sheet citing AABAT]. In Australian usage, a programme counts as BAT if its intended outcomes are therapeutic, even when it uses no formal psychotherapy techniques [source: Coker and Perske 2022]. Outdoor Health Australia states that ethical wilderness therapy in Australia tends to be called "Bush Adventure Therapy" and that it does not support involuntary or coercive therapy of any kind [source: Outdoor Health Australia 2024 submission]. "Outdoor Health" is a newer umbrella term promoted by AABAT for nature-based health interventions; it takes in BAT alongside therapeutic horticulture, equine-facilitated therapy, forest therapy, ecotherapy and Aboriginal on-Country programmes [source: Knowles et al. 2024]. How AABAT and Outdoor Health Australia relate as organisations is [uncertain: not verified].

Core idea of change: Pryor and colleagues framed BAT as a socio-ecological approach to health and wellbeing (Pryor, Carpenter and Townsend 2005, as cited in Pryor et al. 2023 and Knowles et al. 2024). Four key elements recur: time outdoors in nature; adventure and challenge; connection with others, usually in a small group; and intentional use of a therapeutic relationship and framework. These map onto four proposed mechanisms: nature contact, group membership, adventure-based learning and the therapeutic frame, including the alliance (Pryor 2015, 2018, as summarised by Coker and Perske 2022). The authors note these mechanisms are supported by association rather than proven causal links [source: Pryor et al. 2023]. Evidence status in one line: meta-analyses of adventure therapy outcomes exist (e.g. Bowen and Neill 2013; Beck and Wong 2022) [uncertain: not verified; listed in the Outdoor Health Australia submission only].

2. Framework

There is no single national protocol or fixed session count; programmes are co-designed and tailored [source: Outdoor Health Australia 2024]. Two frameworks help the therapist place the work.

A. Common practice elements (international position work led from Australia). Pryor, Richards, Priest, Javorski and Russell (2023) propose interweaving elements rather than stages: biological (intentional physical and sensory activity), psychological (intentional psychological care, conversations, micro-interventions), social (intentionally facilitated safe relationships, attention to power), socio-cultural (awareness of cultural belief systems and practices), ecological (intentional time in and with nature) and ethical (quality and ethical standards at the centre) [source: Pryor et al. 2023]. The practitioner should be able to say which element a programme emphasises and why.

B. Phases of a typical Australian outdoor adventure intervention (worked example: PCYC Bornhoffen, Coker and Perske 2022). This programme calls itself "therapeutic adventure" because it does not diagnose or use clinician-led therapy; treat it as an example of structure, not a clinical protocol.

Phase	Goal	Format (as the source gives it)	Move on when [synthesis]
1. Selection and needs assessment	Nominate and assess fit	Partner school nominates about 15 young people; strengths-based interview using ARACY's Common Approach; exclusion criteria applied	Consent and assent in place; screening done; family informed
2. Lead-in	Build trust, assess readiness	About 4 days: group development, camping, adventure activities, reflection	Young person chooses to continue; no unresolved safety concern
3. Personal journey	Core expedition	Up to 7 days: hiking or canoeing, remote camping, vertical challenges, community living, community service	Expedition complete or supported exit taken
4. Follow-up	Consolidate	About 4 days: goal setting, values exploration, reflection, graduation event	Goals and transfer plan written
5. Community mentoring	Reincorporation and aftercare	Led by partner staff: individual contact, group catch-ups, links to local services	Hand-over to ongoing supports

[source: Coker and Perske 2022]. Follow-up is described as a long-standing weak point because of funding and staff demands [source: Coker and Perske 2022].

C. Rite-of-passage framing. Bell (2003) notes that outdoor programmes often frame themselves as rites of passage after van Gennep's three-stage model of social transformation, but argues the classic model is generally ineffective in contemporary contexts because of the third (return) stage; programmes must either address that stage's challenges, abandon the frame, or use a "Contemporary Adventure Model" knowing its weaknesses [source: Bell 2003 abstract]. Stage names (separation, transition, incorporation) are [uncertain: not verified]. Practical meaning: the reincorporation phase (phase 5 above) is where gains are most often lost, so the therapist's work after the trip matters most [synthesis].

Where the psychotherapist sits. The UK Outdoor Mental Health Interventions Model offers three non-hierarchical zones: Zone 1, an outdoor or psychological element added to an existing service (e.g. walk-and-talk); Zone 2, outdoor activity and psychological approach complementing each other (e.g. landscape metaphors on a forest walk); Zone 3, integrated outdoor therapy drawing fully on both outdoor and psychological competence [source: Richards et al. 2023; UK model, not Australian]. Most psychotherapists will be referring and preparing (no zone), co-facilitating in Zone 1 or 2, or delivering Zone 3 only with outdoor leadership competence [synthesis].

3. Guiding principles

AABAT's ethical principles (13, treated in the worked-example manual as non-negotiable), paraphrased [source: AABAT principles as listed in Coker and Perske 2022]; Outdoor Health Australia's position [source: OHA 2024]; AEE ethics [source: AEE ethical guidelines].

Voluntary participation, selection by readiness. Practical meaning: no court-, parent- or school-forced placement counts as BAT; check the young person's own yes.
No coercion. OHA does not support involuntary coercive therapy and distinguishes BAT from "wilderness boot camps" it says harm participants and staff. Meaning: never refer to a programme using involuntary transport or punitive regimes; see the harm account in guide 025.
Transparency, informed consent and confidentiality. Meaning: client and family know what happens, the risks, who sees what information, before departure.
Respect and positive regard across culture, gender, age and identity. Meaning: ask about pronouns, sleeping and toilet arrangements, faith practice and diet in advance.
Strong family and community connections. Meaning: plan family contact and the return before the trip begins.
Attention to individual and group needs. Meaning: the group serves the person, not the reverse.
Safe physical, psychological and social environments. Meaning: emotional risk is weighed alongside physical risk (also AEE 5.8).
Tailored experiences, with options and supported exits. Meaning: every activity has an alternative and a dignified way out.
Respect for cultural custodianship of Country. Meaning: on whose Country you are, and who holds cultural authority there, is settled before you go, not improvised.
Self-awareness and reflexive practice. Meaning: supervision covers your own reactions to risk, nature and the group.
No harm to people or the natural environment. Meaning: minimal-impact practice; AEE also bars programming that causes permanent wilderness damage.
Co-design, least restriction, reduced power imbalance [source: OHA 2024]. Meaning: goals and activities are negotiated with participants; staff power (who holds food, maps, vehicles) is named.
Competence within training [source: AEE 1.1-1.2]. Meaning: a psychotherapist without outdoor leadership qualifications does not lead activities; an outdoor leader without clinical training does not deliver trauma-specific treatment (PCYC states this is outside its scope) [source: Coker and Perske 2022].
Challenge is a tool, not a test. Activities should be challenging but attainable with clear consequences (Deane and Harré 2014, as cited in Pryor et al. 2023); perceived risk is used to create positive stress (Bowen and Neill 2013, as cited there), and the worked-example manual warns against pushing anyone, especially trauma survivors, past physical and emotional limits. Meaning: you stop before distress becomes overwhelm.
Choice is real or it is named as limited. Coker and Perske warn that on expedition choice is constrained and leaders can create an illusion of choice. Meaning: tell participants honestly which parts are not optional (e.g. walking out to the vehicle).
Multiple relationships managed [source: APA Ethics Code Standard 3.05; AEE 5.2]. Meaning: living, eating and camping together with clients creates multiple relationships; decide in advance what is and is not part of your role.
Accountability: training, evidence-informed practice, outcome measurement, insurance, record keeping and supervision are the accountability themes identified for Outdoor Health [source: Knowles et al. 2024]. Meaning: confirm professional indemnity and public liability cover outdoor work before you start [synthesis].

4. Intervention inventory

The sources describe programme elements and practice principles rather than step-by-step therapist scripts. The inventory below gives the procedures named in the sources (activities, processing, screening, phases) and the therapist-side procedures needed to refer, prepare, co-facilitate and follow up; steps are marked [synthesis] where they are this guide's own operationalisation. Outdoor technical skills (navigation, rope work, paddling, first aid) belong to qualified outdoor leaders and are not described here.

4.1 Locating your role and competence

Purpose / when: Before any outdoor involvement, decide whether you are referring, preparing and debriefing, co-facilitating, or delivering integrated outdoor therapy [source: Richards et al. 2023 zones; AEE 1.1].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Name the zone you would work in. (2) List the outdoor competences that zone needs and who holds them (lead outdoor leader, first-aider). (3) Check your registration body's code (e.g. APS, PACFA, AASW codes are the comparators named by Knowles et al. 2024) and your indemnity insurer on outdoor and overnight work. (4) Identify your supervisor for outdoor work. (5) Write role boundaries into the agreement with the programme.
Example language (illustrative): "On this trip I am the group's counsellor, not a guide. Safety calls on the river belong to the lead instructor."
Watch for: Being pulled into activity leadership you are not qualified for; outdoor staff drifting into trauma work. Working: everyone can state who decides what.

4.2 Evaluating a programme before referral

Purpose / when: Before recommending any BAT, wilderness or adventure programme.
Steps: (1) Check voluntariness: does the programme accept only young people who choose to attend, and does it refuse involuntary transport? [source: OHA 2024; AABAT principles]. (2) Check accreditation where it exists: in the US, the AEE Manual of Accreditation for Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare programmes (developed jointly with the OBH Council from 2013; 2nd edition 2018, 3rd edition announced 2023) covers ethics, risk management and treatment, and OBH Council members must be accredited within two years [source: AEE OBH manual page]; for Australian programmes, ask how they meet AABAT's ethical principles and national adventure activity standards [uncertain: not verified]. (3) Ask about staff: who is clinically trained, who is outdoor-qualified, ratios, supervision. (4) Ask for the behaviour-management and restraint policy: AEE allows restraint only to prevent harm to self or others, never as punishment, and requires adequate water, food, clothing and shelter [source: AEE 5.5-5.6]. (5) Ask about medical screening, emergency plans in remote areas, communications and evacuation (qualitatively). (6) Ask how families are involved and what follow-up exists. (7) Ask who holds cultural authority for the Country used. (8) Ask about complaints, incident reporting and insurance [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Can a young person leave the programme if they want to, and what happens then?" "Who on your team is clinically registered, and who supervises them?"
Watch for: Vagueness about exits, restraint or transport; withholding food, shelter or family contact as consequences; marketing that promises cure; reluctance to share policies. Any of these: do not refer (see guide 025 harm account).

4.3 Screening and readiness assessment

Purpose / when: Before a client joins; repeated at lead-in [source: Coker and Perske 2022, phases 1-2].
Steps: (1) Strengths-based conversation across wellbeing domains; the worked example uses ARACY's Common Approach as a conversation guide, not a deficit checklist (describe, do not reproduce). (2) Apply the programme's exclusion criteria; the worked example excludes known drug or alcohol dependence, entrenched offending with no wish to change, and known violent or sexual behaviour threatening others [source: Coker and Perske 2022]. (3) Ask about trauma linked to places, darkness, isolation, the bush or being away from home: outdoor therapy may not suit people without confidence or safety outdoors, those who may be re-traumatised by certain spaces or activities, and those with physiological constraints [source: Richards et al. 2023]. (4) Route medical questions (heart, asthma, epilepsy, diabetes, allergies including insect stings, medicines, pregnancy, mobility) to the programme's medical screening and the client's GP; do not judge fitness yourself [synthesis]. (5) Current suicide or self-harm risk: standard risk assessment; remote settings limit emergency access, so unstable risk usually means not now [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Tell me what you're good at and what you enjoy, then what worries you about sleeping out in the bush."
Watch for: A client agreeing to please parents; risks disclosed only to you that the programme needs (seek consent to share). Working: the client can name a reason of their own to go.

4.4 Informed consent and the young person's assent

Purpose / when: Before participation; revisited during the programme [source: AEE 4.3-4.4; AABAT principles].
Steps: (1) Explain the nature of the service, rights, risks and responsibilities, fees, confidentiality and realistic benefits, avoiding unrealistic expectations [source: AEE 4.3]. (2) Parents or guardians consent for minors [source: AEE 4.4]; seek the young person's own assent separately, without parents present for part of it [synthesis]. (3) Obtain consent for photos, recording or observers [source: AEE]. (4) Be honest about where choice is limited on expedition [source: Coker and Perske 2022]. (5) Record what was agreed.
Example language (illustrative): "Most things out there you can choose to try or not. A few you can't, like walking back to the bus at the end. I want you to know which are which before you decide."
Watch for: Assent given under threat of consequences at home or school. Working: the young person can repeat the main risks and how to opt out.

4.5 Family involvement plan

Purpose / when: From referral to aftercare. Positive communication with parents was a mechanism of change for adolescents with depression (Norton 2010), and strong follow-up involving family was valued (Dobud 2016) [both as cited in Pryor et al. 2023 and Coker and Perske 2022].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Meet the family before the trip: hopes, fears, what they will do differently on return. (2) Agree how and when the programme contacts family. (3) Plan a family session soon after return. (4) Include family values and communication with school in the follow-up plan, as in Dobud's example.
Example language (illustrative): "When she comes back she'll have new ideas about herself. What would help those ideas survive the first week at home?"
Watch for: Families treating the trip as the fix while home stays the same. Working: parents commit to concrete changes of their own.

4.6 Co-designing goals

Purpose / when: Before departure. OHA describes practices as co-designed and tailored to participants' identified goals; mindfulness of one's treatment goals, with the group adventure factor, predicted improvement (Russell et al. 2017, as cited in Pryor et al. 2023).
Steps: (1) Elicit one to three goals in the client's words. (2) Link each to what might happen outdoors. (3) Agree how the client will recall goals during the trip (a card, a check-in) [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "If this trip went well for you, what would you notice in yourself on day three?"
Watch for: Goals that are adults' goals. Working: the client refers to goals unprompted.

4.7 Pre-briefing (preparation and the departure stage)

Purpose / when: Final session before leaving; corresponds to the separation stage of the rite-of-passage frame [Bell 2003; stage label uncertain].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Rehearse coping for homesickness, fear or anger. (2) Agree a personal signal for needing space. (3) Clarify phone or device rules and family contact. (4) Pack practical worries into the conversation (toilets, menstruation, sleeping near others, medication storage), with the programme handling logistics.
Example language (illustrative): "What has helped you before when you felt stuck somewhere you couldn't leave straight away?"
Watch for: Catastrophic expectations or bravado. Working: the client has a plan for the first hard moment.

4.8 Contracting confidentiality and boundaries outdoors

Purpose / when: Before and at the start of the programme [source: AEE 5.10-5.12, 5.4].
Steps: (1) State confidentiality limits at the start: disclosure only where required by law, to prevent clear and imminent danger, in certain legal proceedings, or with written waiver [source: AEE 5.10]. (2) Name what is different outdoors: conversations may be overheard, others see who walks with whom, staff share tents, vehicles and meals [synthesis]. (3) Touch: explain and seek consent for customary contact such as spotting or harness checks; supportive contact such as hugs is not required and clients may refuse contact except where safety requires it [source: AEE 5.4]. (4) Agree where private conversations happen. (5) Agree weather and cancellation plans so sessions are not lost without notice [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative): "Out here, people can see us talking. If you'd rather speak somewhere more private, tell me and we'll find a spot within sight of the group."
Watch for: Over-familiarity from shared living; staff gossip about disclosures. Working: clients know where to go to talk privately.

4.9 Challenge by choice and graded challenge

Purpose / when: Each activity [source: Coker and Perske 2022; AEE 4.2 ethic of empowerment; Deane and Harré 2014 and Bowen and Neill 2013 as cited in Pryor et al. 2023].
Steps: (1) Offer a challenge that is attainable with authentic, clear consequences. (2) Let the participant set their level (watch, help, try part, try all). (3) Offer an alternative role (belay support, navigator, photographer with consent). (4) Respect the decision and help them understand its consequences [source: AEE 4.2]. (5) Use a supported exit when needed [source: AABAT principles].
Example language (illustrative): "You can go to the first ledge, the top, or stay on the ground and run the safety call. Each is a real part of today."
Watch for: Group pressure; staff pride in completion rates; panic signs. Working: participants choose a stretch level and can say why.

4.10 Safety and wellbeing scanning (GRABBSS)

Purpose / when: Before, during and after activities; the worked-example manual uses GRABBSS to scan participants [source: Coker and Perske 2022].
Steps: Briefly scan each domain the acronym names: Goals, Readiness, Affect, Body, Behaviour, Stage (of group development), Setting [source: Coker and Perske 2022]. Adjust or stop when a domain flags a concern; share concerns with the lead instructor [synthesis].
Example language (illustrative, staff to staff): "His affect has flattened since lunch and he's stopped eating. I'd like to swap the abseil for the low-ropes option and check in with him."
Watch for: Dissociation looking like calm; physical signs of heat, cold, dehydration or exhaustion: refer to the outdoor leader and first-aider and the programme's safety plan. Working: changes are made before incidents.

4.11 Group development and play

Purpose / when: Early phases; the worked example uses group games and play guided by Project Adventure's FUNN philosophy, plus cooperative games, problem-solving initiatives and trust activities [source: Coker and Perske 2022; Outdoors Queensland].
Steps: (1) Start with low-risk cooperative games. (2) Move to problem-solving initiatives. (3) Introduce trust activities only once the group can keep each other safe. (4) Debrief each briefly (4.13).
Example language (illustrative): "What did the group do that made that easier the second time?"
Watch for: Trust activities that involve touch or falling with a survivor of abuse (consent first, alternatives ready); scapegoating. Working: members begin to coordinate without staff.

4.12 Intentional conversations and micro-interventions during activity

Purpose / when: Throughout; Australian practitioners named intentional conversations and participant-directed opportunities for change as key ingredients (Pryor 2009, as cited in Pryor et al. 2023); the psychological element includes psychotherapeutic strategies and micro-interventions [source: Pryor et al. 2023]. In Zone 2 a psychotherapist may use landscape metaphors or a cognitive-behavioural technique within an activity [source: Richards et al. 2023].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Walk alongside rather than face to face; side-by-side talk often eases disclosure. (2) Notice a live moment (hesitation at a creek crossing, pride at a summit). (3) Offer one brief reflection or question linked to the client's goal. (4) Use a skill from your own modality (e.g. naming a thought, a grounding step) only if you are trained in it. (5) Leave deeper material for the debrief or a private conversation.
Example language (illustrative): "You paused before the crossing and then found your own way over. Is that like anything at home?"
Watch for: Interrupting absorption or flow; turning every moment into therapy. Working: clients start linking experiences to their lives themselves.

4.13 Processing and debriefing (what? so what? now what?)

Purpose / when: After activities and at day's end. The worked-example manual uses Kolb's cycle with the questions "what?, so what?, and now what?", and cites Gass and Priest (1993) that developmental programmes need around 50% process time and therapeutic programmes around 75% [source: Coker and Perske 2022]. Reflection is one of four factors of the Adventure Therapy Experience Scale [source: Pryor et al. 2023].
Steps: (1) What happened? (facts, each voice). (2) So what? (feelings, meaning, patterns). (3) Now what? (one thing to carry forward). (4) Close with a check-out [synthesis]. Art-making can provide reflective space in outdoor programmes (Carpenter and McKenna 2012) [uncertain: method not verified].
Example language (illustrative): "What happened when the map got wet? ... What did that bring up for you? ... What could you take from that into school next week?"
Watch for: Over-processing exhausted participants; public disclosure the person later regrets (offer private follow-up). Working: "now what" answers become specific.

4.14 Nature connection (the ecological element)

Purpose / when: Throughout; intentional time in and with nature, human-nature relationships and awareness of ecological systems [source: Pryor et al. 2023]. Outdoor Health Australia names beneficial connection with nature as one of the combined ingredients [source: OHA 2024].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Build in unstructured time to notice place (sounds, weather, land) within the programme's supervision rules. (2) Invite the client to describe their relationship to this place. (3) Practise minimal-impact camping; AEE bars programming that would cause permanent wilderness damage [source: AEE 3.3].
Example language (illustrative): "What did you notice about this place this morning that you missed yesterday?"
Watch for: Fear of the bush, insects or dark; sensory overload in neurodivergent clients; allergies and ticks (refer to programme safety guidance). Working: the client names a place-based experience as meaningful.

4.15 Community service as meaning-making

Purpose / when: During the journey phase; the worked example includes tree planting, weeding and track maintenance [source: Coker and Perske 2022].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Frame the task as contribution. (2) Debrief what it felt like to give. (3) Link to identity goals.
Example language (illustrative): "Those trees will be here long after we leave. What does it feel like to have left something?"
Watch for: Service felt as punishment or unpaid labour. Working: participants describe pride or care.

4.16 Working with Country and cultural authority

Purpose / when: Planning onward. AABAT's principles include respect for cultural custodianship of Country [source: Coker and Perske 2022]; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander scholars understand outdoor health as tied to Indigenous cultures, worldviews and identities, Prehn (2021) describes Aboriginal men's nature-based therapy ("Country is our counselling office" in its title), and culturally safe practice and decolonisation are needed [source: Knowles et al. 2024]. Pryor et al. (2023) consulted Aboriginal cultural mentors in developing the cultural element.
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Identify the Traditional Custodians of the Country used. (2) Ask the programme how cultural authority is held, for example through Aboriginal community-controlled organisations, cultural mentors or Traditional Owner groups. (3) Leave any cultural or ceremonial content entirely to those with authority; this guide gives none. (4) For an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander client, ask what Country, kin and culture mean to them and whether an on-Country programme led by community would suit better. (5) Use the DSM-5-TR Cultural Formulation Interview where helpful [uncertain: not verified].
Example language (illustrative): "Whose Country will you be walking on? Would it matter to you to know that, or to have Elders or mentors involved?"
Watch for: Non-Indigenous staff improvising "Indigenous" activities; tokenistic acknowledgements. Working: cultural roles are named, resourced and led by community.

4.17 Goal setting, values and transfer planning (follow-up phase)

Purpose / when: At the end of the journey and in phase 4 [source: Coker and Perske 2022]. Transfer means generalising what is learned in the adventure to daily life, supported by processing (Nadler 1993, as cited in Pryor et al. 2023).
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Review the original goals. (2) Name what changed and the evidence. (3) Identify triggers at home that may undo gains. (4) Choose small, concrete actions and who will support each. (5) Agree an object or image that recalls the trip.
Example language (illustrative): "On the trip you asked for help when the pack was too heavy. Who at home could you ask, and how?"
Watch for: Grand resolutions. Working: actions are specific and someone else knows about them.

4.18 Reincorporation and aftercare

Purpose / when: Phase 5, the stage Bell (2003) identifies as the weak point of the rite-of-passage frame; in the worked example, community mentoring by partner staff (individual contact, group catch-ups, links to local services) [source: Coker and Perske 2022; Bell 2003 abstract].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Schedule your first post-trip session before departure. (2) Hold a family or school meeting to mark the return and agree how others will recognise change. (3) Link the client to local groups that continue the outdoor or social element. (4) Keep contact with the programme's mentor with consent. (5) Mark endings: AEE requires reasonable efforts to arrange continuing services rather than unilateral termination [source: AEE 3.2, 5.9].
Example language (illustrative): "Coming back can feel flat after something big. Let's plan for that rather than be surprised by it."
Watch for: A post-trip slump read as failure; graduation without follow-through. Working: gains are visible in ordinary settings weeks later.

4.19 Post-programme debrief with a referred client

Purpose / when: First session after return, when you referred but did not attend [synthesis].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Let the client tell the story in sequence. (2) Ask specifically about anything frightening, humiliating, unsafe or unfair, including staff conduct, restraint, withheld food or contact. (3) Separate what they valued from what harmed. (4) Act on safeguarding concerns (4.21). (5) Feed back to the programme with consent.
Example language (illustrative): "Was there any time you felt unsafe, or that you weren't allowed to say no?"
Watch for: Loyalty to the group masking harm (see 5.10 on severe initiations). Working: a balanced account with both highs and difficulties.

4.20 Outcome monitoring

Purpose / when: Before, after and at follow-up; outcome measurement is one of the accountability themes for outdoor health [source: Knowles et al. 2024]. Russell and Gillis (2017) developed the Adventure Therapy Experience Scale measuring group adventure, reflection, nature and challenge (as cited in Pryor et al. 2023; items not reproduced, licensing [uncertain]).
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Choose a measure you already use for the presenting problem. (2) Add an experience measure if the programme uses one. (3) Review results with the client at follow-up.
Example language (illustrative): "These questions help us see what changed and what stuck."
Watch for: Relying on end-of-trip euphoria. Working: follow-up scores hold.

4.21 Safeguarding and incident response

Purpose / when: Any concern about a child, young person or vulnerable adult, before, during or after [synthesis].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Know your state or territory mandatory-reporting duties and the programme's child-safe policy and Working with Children Check requirements [uncertain: requirements vary by jurisdiction; not verified]. (2) In the field, follow the programme's incident and emergency plan; do not investigate. (3) Record facts, times and words used. (4) Report to the programme lead and the statutory authority as required. (5) Arrange support for the young person and inform guardians unless that increases risk. (6) Never name the young person in any shared report beyond what the authority requires.
Example language (illustrative): "Thank you for telling me. I can't keep this just between us, and I'll tell you who I need to talk to."
Watch for: Isolation and dependence on staff in remote settings, which raise abuse risk. Working: concerns reach the right authority promptly.

4.22 Reflexive practice and supervision

Purpose / when: Throughout. AABAT lists self-awareness and reflexive practice; AEE requires appropriate supervision of delegated tasks; supervision is an accountability theme [source: Coker and Perske 2022; AEE 2.2; Knowles et al. 2024].
Steps [synthesis]: (1) Daily staff debrief in the field. (2) Note your reactions to risk, fatigue and group dynamics. (3) Take outdoor-specific dilemmas (shared tents, touch, being seen) to supervision.
Example language (illustrative, to a supervisor): "I felt protective of one participant and nearly overrode the instructor's call. I want to look at that."
Watch for: Staff exhaustion; heroic rescuer roles. Working: dilemmas are discussed before they become incidents.

5. Handling problems

The sources name some problems (illusion of choice, pushing past limits, weak follow-up, coercive programmes, re-traumatisation, access); responses are largely this guide's own [synthesis] unless a source is given.

5.1 Client refuses or wants to leave mid-programme. Treat refusal as information, not defiance. Offer the alternative role or supported exit that AABAT principles require [source: Coker and Perske 2022]; explore what the refusal protects. Never use food, shelter, family contact or humiliation as leverage [source: AEE 5.6; OHA 2024]. [synthesis for the rest]
5.2 Overwhelm, panic or dissociation in the field. Stop the activity, move to a safe spot with the outdoor leader's agreement, ground with simple sensory cues, lower the challenge. Coker and Perske warn against pushing trauma survivors past their limits. Afterwards, revisit screening: some places or activities may re-traumatise [source: Richards et al. 2023]. [synthesis]
5.3 Stuck client: participates but nothing shifts. Return to the client's own goals (4.6); check whether the challenge is too low or too high (attainable with clear consequences); try a different element (nature, service, a role of responsibility) rather than more intensity. [synthesis]
5.4 Group conflict, scapegoating or bullying. Pause the task; process the group's behaviour as group material (social element, attention to power) [source: Pryor et al. 2023]; separate and protect the targeted person; involve the lead instructor in sleeping and walking arrangements. [synthesis]
5.5 Disclosure of abuse or risk in a remote setting. Follow 4.21; agree with the lead how the young person stays safe until contact with authorities is possible; do not promise secrecy. [synthesis]
5.6 Injury, illness, weather or evacuation. Physical safety is the outdoor leader's call under the programme's risk-management and emergency plans. Your role: emotional first aid, keeping the group informed, debriefing afterwards. Taking people with health needs outdoors "involves a particular level of risk" that ethical practice reduces and weighs against benefits [source: Knowles et al. 2024]. Water-based journeys (canoeing, sailing) carry drowning and cold risks: route to the programme's safety guidance and national lifesaving bodies, and cross-refer Domain X 196 on cold-water immersion. No exposure or immersion guidance is given here. [synthesis]
5.7 Post-programme slump or relapse at home. Expect it: Bell (2003) locates the difficulty of rite-of-passage programmes in the return stage. Normalise; use the transfer plan (4.17); meet the family; strengthen local links (4.18). [synthesis]
5.8 Parents or schools pressing for a placement the young person does not want. Explain that BAT is voluntary and readiness-based [source: AABAT principles; OHA 2024]; work on the young person's motivation or delay; never refer to coercive programmes (guide 025 harm account; Domain XVI coercive troubled-teen industry cross-reference).
5.9 Discovering that a programme is coercive or harmful. Stop referrals; support any client affected (4.19); report safety concerns to the relevant regulator, child-protection authority or police as the facts require; document. OHA states coercive wilderness boot camps harm participants and staff [source: OHA 2024]. See guide 025. [synthesis for procedure]
5.10 Glowing reports that may reflect the ordeal, not the outcome. Aronson and Mills (1959) found that people who went through a more severe initiation rated the group as more likeable; alternative explanations were never ruled out and a later replication attempt did not succeed [source: The Psychologist, Oxenham 2015]. Practical caution: hardship can raise attachment to a group or programme, so a young person's or parent's enthusiasm is not evidence of benefit or safety; look at follow-up outcomes and ask about harms directly. Any link to conformity is [uncertain: not verified]. [synthesis for application]
5.11 Dual-role strain. Camping, eating and travelling with clients blurs roles; plan which conversations are therapeutic and which are social, avoid business or close personal relationships with participants, and take precautions where multiple relationships cannot be avoided [source: AEE 5.2; APA Ethics Code Standard 3.05]. Tell clients how contact will work after the trip. [synthesis]
5.12 Touch and physical support. Get consent for safety contact (spotting, harness checks) and respect refusal except where safety requires it; never require supportive touch [source: AEE 5.4]. Touch is never sexual; any concern is a safeguarding matter (4.21).
5.13 Cultural missteps. If a programme or staff member misuses Aboriginal culture or Country, raise it with the programme and the relevant community organisation; acknowledge harm to the client; support the client to choose a community-led alternative [synthesis; source for principle: AABAT principles; Knowles et al. 2024].
5.14 Access, disability, neurodivergence and cost. OHA says outdoor therapies can reach young people, males and neurodiverse people who struggle with clinical rooms [source: OHA 2024]; equity barriers include funding, time and rural-urban disparities [source: Knowles et al. 2024]. Ask about adapted routes, sensory needs, mobility, toileting and funding pathways; do not assume a client cannot take part. [synthesis]
5.15 Medical and mental-health instability before departure. Unstable suicide risk, acute psychosis, uncontrolled medical conditions or medicine changes usually mean postponement; route medical questions to the GP and programme medical screening; never advise starting, stopping or changing a medicine. If risk rises after return, follow standard crisis planning (in Australia, Lifeline 13 11 14, as Lifeline publishes it; 988 in the US; Samaritans 116 123 in the UK and Ireland). [synthesis]
5.16 Programme lacks clinical input or follow-up. Many Australian programmes are run by non-clinical outdoor practitioners who should know the limits of their training and refer on [source: Coker and Perske 2022]. Offer to provide the clinical frame yourself (pre- and post-trip sessions, consultation to staff) rather than expecting the programme to supply it. [synthesis]

Sources

Web sources:

Books and works cited:

Aronson, E. and Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59(2), 177 (as cited in Oxenham 2015).
Works cited as reported in the sources above [uncertain: not verified]: Pryor, Carpenter and Townsend (2005); Pryor (2009); Pryor (2015); Pryor, Pryor and Carpenter (2018); Norton (2010); Dobud (2016); Nadler (1993); Gass and Priest (1993); Russell and Gillis (2017); Russell et al. (2017); Deane and Harré (2014); Bowen and Neill (2013); Prehn (2021); Beck and Wong (2022); Carpenter and McKenna (2012).

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